Organisational Behaviour case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Organisational Behaviour case study - Essay Example Chain of command includes authority and unity of command. Span of control in the number of subordinates a manager can efficiently and effectively directs. Centralization is the degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization. Consistent with the recent management efforts to make organization more flexible and responsive, there has been a marked trend towards decentralizing decision making. In a decentralized organization, action can be taken more quickly to solve problems, more people provide input into decisions, and employees are less likely to feel alienated from those who make the decisions that affect their work lives. Finally formalization refers to the degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized. If a job is highly formalized, then the job incumbent has a minimum amount of discretion. . When formalization is low job behaviors are relatively non-programmed and employees have to freedom to exercise discretion in their work. In the County general hospital, reorganization of the structure of the administration teams within each department has to take place. To date, administrative staff within each department had reported solely to an administrative manager. ... Its major disadvantage is the difficulty to coordinating the task of diverse functional specialists so that their activities are completed on time and within budget. Service departmentalization on the other hand exactly the opposite benefits and advantages. It facilitates coordination among specialties to achieve on time completion and meet the budget targets. Furthermore, it provides clear responsibility for all activities related to a service, but with duplication of activities and costs. The matrix structure attempts to gain the strengths of each, while avoiding their weaknesses (Anderson, 1994). The strength of the matrix lies in its ability to facilitate coordination when the organization has a multiplicity of complex and interdependent activities. The direct and frequent contacts between the different specialists in the matrix can make for better communication and more flexibility. Information permeates the organization and more quickly reaches the people who need to take accou nt of it. It facilitates the efficient allocation of specialists. When individuals with highly specialized skills are lodged in one functional department or service group, their talents are monopolized and under used. The matrix achieves the advantages of economies of scale by providing the organization with both the best resources and the effective way of ensuring their efficient deployment. The major disadvantage of the matrix lies in the dual command chain. This results in confusion and ambiguity, role conflict and more stress to workers. But over the past decade, senior managers are working with new structural options that can better help their organizations to

Adding a Class to the School Curriculum Essay Example for Free

Adding a Class to the School Curriculum Essay Dear Principal, a class that specializes in focus, prioritizing, organization and study skills is absolutely necessary for any Middle School student. At my age and younger, students have a tendency to be disorganized both physically and mentally. I have a knack for losing and forgetting my homework assignments and my grades suffering. I know I am not alone in this struggle against clutter and forgetfulness. Critical thinking classes provide a student with structure, study skills and the art of prioritizing. I know personally the effects of school on a student who is unprepared and disorganized. The stress and sleepless nights can be avoided with a class dedicated to the students future. Unlike Math and Language Arts, this class would be linked with the students success in EVERY other class. The benefits would not only pertain to students, but to the enthusiasm and effectiveness of a teacher. Is there anything more important than preparing a student for his or her future? The skills learned in a critical thinking class would help a student not only through Middle and High School. The study skills and note taking strategies would also be useful and very beneficial in College and whatever career they choose to pursue in the future. A class dedicated on teaching a student to remain focused and take accurate notes in lectures would be beneficial to all the daydreamers, doodlers and dozers who cant listen to a teacher and stay focused on the words coming out of her mouth. I know the effects all too well. As my teacher begins her daily rant, I shut my mind off and let it wander around the room. I see students snoring in the corner and others doodling in their notebook or flinging notes to each other as slyly as possible. I smile at their antics in relieving the exhausting boredom of a class like this. Only a handful of students are actually listening to the teacher and it is evident that they rather be anywhere else doing anything else. With lunch just ten minutes away the whole class is already leaning towards the door and staring hungrily at the wall clock. I am snapped out of my daydream by the shrill shrieking of the lunch bell above my head. Relief runs through me as the teacher dismisses us and our grumbling stomachs. As quickly as I possibly can I scramble to pack up all my things and rush to the lunchroom. I dont even remember to write down the homework assignment! This forgetfulness is fueled by my inability to stay focused in any class much less the one right before lunch. The night before I had stayed up all night studying for a different test this inevitably leads to me being grumpy and unfocused for the following days. Especially since every night seemed to be a late night and with the stress and lack of sleep I am on the verge of snapping. The next day I fail the pop quiz along with almost all of the students who stopped listening to the teachers lecture, five minutes in. Mr. Principal, if students knew how to take accurate notes and focus, then the snoring in the back of the class would be brought to a minimum as well as all the other distractions in the room. Students would be more eager to learn if they understood how to do it in a way that works for them and they see the positive effects it can have on their lives. Grades overall would improve if students knew how to listen in class and study correctly. Instead of waiting until the night before a huge exam, reading words over and over until they become a jumbled mess of never ending letters and symbols, I could study one step at a time so that on the night before I can skim over the topics and be prepared to face the test. Being prepared keeps students from wanting to ditch school in order to avoid the test as a whole or just to sleep in and catch up on some Zs. Preparation would also bring the lack of sleep and stress to a minimum. No longer would the piles of never ending homework and study guides hover over our worn out minds, not if we knew how to work ahead and prioritize what needs to be done now and what can be done progressively. It would help to keep students fresh, awake and ready to learn every morning. Not only could grades improve, but so would the schools attendance record. Mr. Principal, students are more willing to come to class if there is something to look forward to. Instead of school being boring and torturous, it could be viewed as an opportunity to put the skills learned in their Critical Thinking class to the test. There would also be less problems waking up and therefore making it to class on time. No more napping in class, instead students would be note-taking and teachers would see the increased enthusiasm in their class. The teachers would be motivated to work even harder to teach their students all they can. Why would teachers want to teach if they know that the students couldnt care less? If teachers see students participating and not acting out then they would also be motivated to help the students learn even more than what is specified in the curriculum. Regular and advanced students would surpass any of the other schools. The school would work at least ten times more efficiently and productively. Everyone would be enthusiastic and successful in school. Mr. Principal if adding a class could determine whether your school is average or above average, would you take the chance? The skills learned in Middle School Critical Thinking classes would have a lasting impression in a students life forever. With the added skills, advanced teachers, and motivation that a student gains while taking a Critical Thinking class would definitely up their chances of that student staying in school not only in High Sch ool, but progressing even in the College level. This is not a simple feat and many students who just dont know how to keep their lives organized have a lot more chances of dropping out than the student who is well prepared and ready to take on anything the class has for them. In college most if not all the classes are lectures, if this bores a student or a student knows how to keep organized notes then the classes will be a lot harder. In comparison to High School, College has a lot more temptation to go party instead of studying, or hanging out with friends in your dorm instead of going over yesterdays notes. This can lead to dropping grades and even dropping out of school. Peer pressure to drink, smoke and not study is a LOT stronger as the years go by. In college teachers are no longer on top of their students to do their assignments and to study like the teachers in Middle School and High School. Students have more freedom and a more responsibility to keep their grades intact and the choice to worry about their academic or the ir social life. This responsibility may be too much for an average student, but for a student who has been taught and has practiced their critical thinking skills, the choice is obvious. The students who have the discipline to prioritize correctly and put their school first will be more successful time and time again over the student who picks his social life over his stupid grades. The students who stay up until midnight cramming for an exam that they knew months before will also struggle with their own problems in the future. Mr. Principal, a student who has practiced discipline, prioritizing, focusing and productivity will be prepared for anything that can come at them in the future. It is your job to prepare your students and if your students arent improving then their academics are failing. This is not something that can be fixed with MORE work, but with a class that helps kids manage their time better. Skills like these are not only useful in college though. They are useful in the students car eer. Discipline and respect are very useful in an office setting especially when interning. Interns are usually put through a series of test before they are even accepted! Most of the time these tests have nothing to do with what one hundred twenty thousand times fifty is, but with how to manage two or three tasks at the same time and how to be adaptable in any situation. An intern who already knows how to take outline notes and schedule their days accordingly will have much more chances of succeeding in the business world over an unprepared slacker. Bosses look for organization and preparation in their employees, but above that they look for someone who looks the part. Before you even open your mouth in an interview, the only thing the employer sees is just how long you stayed up the night before preparing a last minute resume. The bags under your eyes and crumpled outfit wont seem like a presentable and organized employee and the typos in your resume will stand out in comparison to the other applicant who worked on their resume for a week, reading and rereading it until it was perfection. The applicant who has her hair perfectly in place, her outfit ironed flat and fully prepared to speak to the employer has a lot more chances of being hired. This all goes back to you, Mr. Principal. The students ability to focus on the interview and be prepared depends fully on what opportunities YOU put in their lives when they are in your school. If Critical Thinking Classes arent offered in school then your students will be beat out in interview after interview not only for their careers, but for college and for advanced placement. This will hinder them in comparison to the students who have all the skill they taught in their Critical Thinking classes to help them through the interview and even to their promotions in work. Mr. Principal students deserve to have a class that will allow them to have an upperhand in classes, interviews and applications. Every student has the ability to have straight As and be successful, but not all of them have the skills needed to put their abilities to work and help them not only in Middle School, but for the rest of their lives. Mr.Principal you have nothing to lose and everything to gain. The admiration of both your staff and students and the incredible feeling that comes from knowing that youve made a difference in your students lives. Without a doubt, thanks to the Critical Thinking Class your school could benefit from the increased academic abilities of your students. This class will help students for generations to come, if you could go back in time wouldnt you want to be given this chance?

Comparing To His Coy Mistress and One Flesh :: Papers

Comparing To His Coy Mistress and One Flesh These are two poems wrote at very different times, and have some very different views about love and what is contained in love. Andrew Marvell wrote 'To His Coy Mistress,' in the 17th century has views are of a man thinking about his sex life. 'One Flesh,' written by Elizabeth Jennings in the 20th century has views from a daughter looking at her parents with a sympathetic view. In 'To His Coy Mistress,' the language within this poem is much like the style of language used in Shakespeare's work, and it would seem they had similar interests and motives on writing their pieces. It seems that the only reason for Marvell to write this poem was to try and get his Lady-friend to advance their caring relationship into a sexual relationship. Within this poem all he is really doing is trying to persuade his girlfriend to change her mind about wanting to die pure and innocent, as she wants to die a virgin, and goes about this by describing some horrific images. This could show that he wants her to be scared out of her state of mind and into his beliefs. He starts off trying to sweeten her into wanting to have sex with him, he says Had we but world enough, and time, This coyness, Lady, were no crime. We would sit down, and think which way -------------------------------------- To talk, and pass our long love's day. He is saying here that if there were a limitless amount of time we would be able to go out and just think about talking to each other, but because life is short we can't do that so take a chance and do it. Then he goes onto say that in an ideal world one would have time to go to such places as India and search for ruby's and he would not complain because he would have endless amounts of time with her, but this isn't an ideal world. Here he is just reinforcing his previous

Motion Picture Industry

Case Problem 2: The Motion Picture Industry This case provides the student with the opportunity to use numerical measures to continue the analysis of the motion picture industry data first presented in Chapter 2. Developing and interpreting descriptive statistics such as the mean, median, standard deviation and range are emphasized. Five-number summaries and the identification of outliers are also of interest. Interpretations and insights can vary. We illustrate some below. Descriptive Statistics Variable N Mean SE Mean StDev Range Opening Gross 100 9. 8 1. 89 18. 87 108. 43 Total Gross 100 33. 04 6. 32 63. 16 380. 15 Number of Theaters 100 1278 138 1379 3905 Weeks in Top 60 100 8. 680 0. 639 6. 390 26. 000 Variable MinimumQ1 Median Q3 Maximum Opening Gross 0. 0100 0. 0625 0. 395 12. 49 108. 44 Total Gross 0. 0300 0. 375 5. 854 47. 69 380. 18 Number of Theaters 5. 00 45. 3 410 2732 3910 Weeks in Top 60 1. 000 3. 000 7. 00 13. 000 27. 000 Interpretation Opening Weekend Gross Sales. Th e mean opening weekend gross sales is $9. 38 million. The five-number summary is . 01, . 0625, . 395, 12. 49 and 108. 44. Thus the opening weekend gross sales is highly variable and ranges from a low of $10,000 to a high of $108. 44 million. 50% of the motion pictures had an opening weekend gross sales of $395,000 or less, and 25% had a relatively low opening weekend gross sales of $62,500 or less. The top 25% of the motion pictures had an opening weekend gross sales of $12. 9 million or more. Total Gross Sales. The mean total gross sales is $33. 04 million. The five-number summary is . 03, . 375, 5. 854, 47. 69 and 380. 18. Thus the total gross sales is also highly variable and ranges from a low of $30,000 to a high of $380. 18 million. 50% of the motion pictures had a total gross sales of $5. 854 million or less, and 25% had a relatively low total gross sales of $375,000 or less. The top 25% of the motion pictures had total gross sales of $47. 69 million or more. Number of Theater s.The mean number of theaters for motion pictures is 1278 theaters. The five-number summary is 5, 45. 3, 410, 2732 and 3910. Thus the number of theaters for a motion picture is also highly variable and ranges from a low of 5 theaters to a high of 3910 theaters. 50% of the motion pictures were shown in 410 or fewer theaters. 25% of the motion pictures were shown in 45 or fewer theaters. The top 25% of the motion pictures were shown in 2732 or more theaters. Number of Weeks in Top 60. The mean number of weeks in the top 60 for motion pictures is 8. 8 weeks. The five-number summary is 1, 3, 7, 13 and 27. Thus the number of weeks in the top 60 is also highly variable and ranges from a low of 1 week to a high of 27 weeks. 50% of the motion pictures were on the top 60 list for 7 or fewer weeks. 25% of the motion pictures were on the top 60 list for 3 or fewer weeks. The top 25% of the motion pictures were on the top 60 list for 13 or more weeks. General Observations. The data show that th ere is a wide variation in the performance of motion pictures for the four variables being studied.Motion pictures range from the low gross sales movies shown in relatively few theaters to the highly successful motion pictures with hundreds of millions in gross sales and playing in almost 4000 theaters. The profiles of motion pictures using the means and medians are shown below. |Profile |Mean |Median | |Opening Weekend Gross Sales |$ 9. 38 million |$ . 395 million | |Total Gross Sales |$33. 04 million |$ 5. 54 million | |Number of Theaters |1278 |410 | |Number of Weeks in Top 60 |8. 68 |7 | The relatively few extremely high performance blockbuster motion pictures tend to inflate the mean in the above profile calculations. The profile based the median gives a better picture of the middle or more typical performance characteristics in the motion picture industry. Outliers We will use outliers to identify the highly successful blockbuster motion pictures in the data set.Using Q3 + 1. 5(IQR) to identify the levels required to qualify as a high performance outlier, we have the following. Opening Weekend Gross Sales Q3 + 1. 5(IQR) = 12. 49 + 1. 5(12. 49 – . 0625) = $31. 13 million Total Gross Sales Q3 + 1. 5(IQR) = 47. 69 + 1. 5(47. 69 – . 375) = $118. 66 million Number of Theaters Q3 + 1. 5(IQR) = 2732 + 1. 5(2732 – 45. 3) = 6762 theaters Number of Weeks on the Top 60 List Q3 + 1. 5(IQR) = 13 + 1. 5(13 – 3) = 28 weeks There are no outliers in terms of the number of theaters or the number of weeks on the top 60 list.There were motion pictures that were high on these two variables, but not high enough to be considered outliers. However, there were six motion pictures that out performed the other motion pictures in terms of reaching outlier levels in opening weekend gross sales and total gross sales. These motions pictures are considered the â€Å"blockbuster† motion pictures in the data set. To be in this category the motion pictur e had an opening weekend gross sales greater than $31. 13 million and a total gross sales greater than $118. 66 millions.The six blockbuster motion pictures in this category ranked by total gross sales are as follows: |Motion Picture |Opening Gross Sales |Total |Number of |Weeks in Top 60| | |($ millions) |Gross Sales |Theaters | | | | |($ millions) | | | |Star Wars: Episode III |108. 4 |380. 18 |3,663 |19 | |Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire |102. 69 |287. 18 |3,858 |13 | |War of the Worlds | 77. 06 |234. 21 |3,910 |19 | |Wedding Crashers | 33. 90 |209. 22 |3,131 |23 | |Batman Begins | 48. 5 |205. 28 |3,858 |18 | |Mr. and Mrs. Smith | 50. 34 |186. 22 |3,451 |21 | Star Wars: Episode III was the top motion picture in terms of both opening weekend gross sales and total gross sales for 2005. War of the Worlds was shown in the most theaters 3910 and Wedding Crashers, at 23 weeks, was the motion picture in this group with the longest run in the top 60 list.

Industrial Policy

INDUSTRIAL POLICY SINCE 1956 When India achieved Independence in 1947, the national consensus was in favour of rapid industrialization of the economy which was seen not only as the key to economic development but also to economic sovereignty. In the subsequent years, India's Industrial Policy evolved through successive Industrial Policy Resolutions and Industrial Policy Statements. Specific priorities for industrial development were also laid down in the successive Five Year Plans.Building on the so-called â€Å"Bombay Plan†1 in the pre-Independence era, the first Industrial Policy Resolution announced in 1948 laid down broad contours of the strategy of industrial development. At that time the Constitution of India had not taken final shape nor was the Planning Commission constituted. Moreover, the necessary legal framework was also not put in place. Not surprisingly therefore, the Resolution was somewhat broad in its scope and direction. Yet, an important distinction was made among industries to be kept under the exclusive ownership of Government, i. e. the public sector, those reserved for private sector and the joint sector. Subsequently, the Indian Constitution was adopted in January 1950, the Planning Commission was constituted in March 1950 and the Industrial (Department and Regulation) Act (IDR Act) was enacted in 1951 with the objective of empowering the Government to take necessary steps to regulate the pattern of industrial development through licensing. This paved the way for the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956, which was the first comprehensive statement on the strategy for industrial development in India.Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 The Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 was shaped by the Mahalanobis Model of growth, which suggested that emphasis on heavy industries would lead the economy towards a long term higher growth path. The Resolution widened the scope of the public sector. The objective was to accelerate 1 Bombay Plan prepared by leading Indian industrialists in 1944-45 had recommended government support for industrialization, including a direct role in the production of capital goods. economic growth and boost the process of industrialization as a means to achieving a socialistic pattern of society. Given the scarce capital and inadequate entrepreneurial base, the Resolution accorded a predominant role to the State to assume direct responsibility for industrial development. All industries of basic and strategic importance and those in the nature of public utility services besides those requiring large scale investment were reserved for the public sector.The Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 classified industries into three categories. The first category comprised 17 industries (included in Schedule A of the Resolution) exclusively under the domain of the Government. These included inter alia, railways, air transport, arms and ammunition, iron and steel and atomic energy. Th e second category comprised 12 industries (included in Schedule B of the Resolution), which were envisaged to be progressively State owned but private sector was expected to supplement the efforts of the State.The third category contained all the remaining industries and it was expected that private sector would initiate development of these industries but they would remain open for the State as well. It was envisaged that the State would facilitate and encourage development of these industries in the private sector, in accordance with the programmes formulated under the Five Year Plans, by appropriate fiscal measures and ensuring adequate infrastructure. Despite the demarcation of industries into separate categories, the Resolution was flexible enough to allow the required adjustments and modifications in the national interest.Another objective spelt out in the Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 was the removal of regional disparities through development of regions with low industrial base. Accordingly, adequate infrastructure for industrial development of such regions was duly emphasized. Given the potential to provide large-scale employment, the Resolution reiterated the Government’s determination to provide all sorts of assistance to small and cottage industries for wider dispersal of the industrial base and more equitable distribution of income.The Resolution, in fact, reflected the prevalent value system of India in the early 1950s, which was centered around self sufficiency in industrial 3 production. The Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 was a landmark policy statement and it formed the basis of subsequent policy announcements. Industrial Policy Measures in the 1960s and 1970s Monopolies Inquiry Commission (MIC) was set up in 1964 to review various aspects pertaining to concentration of economic power and operations of industrial licensing under the IDR Act, 1951.While emphasizing that the planned economy contributed to the grow th of industry, the Report by MIC concluded that the industrial licensing system enabled big business houses to obtain disproportionately large share of licenses which had led to pre-emption and foreclosure of capacity. Subsequently, the Industrial Licensing Policy Inquiry Committee (Dutt Committee), constituted in 1967, recommended that larger industrial houses should be given licenses only for setting up industry in core and heavy investment sectors, thereby necessitating reorientation of industrial licensing policy.In 1969, the monopolies and restrictive Trade Practices (MRTP) Act was introduced to enable the Government to effectively control concentration of economic power. The Dutt Committee had defined large business houses as those with assets of more than Rs. 350 million. The MRTP Act, 1969 defined large business houses as those with assets of Rs. 200 million and above. Large industries were designated as MRTP companies and were eligible to participate in industries that wer e not reserved for the Government or the Small scale sector.The new Industrial Licensing Policy of 1970 classified industries into four categories. First category, termed as ‘Core Sector’, consisted of basic, critical and strategic industries. Second category termed as ‘Heavy Investment Sector’, comprised projects involving investment of more than Rs. 50 million. The third category, the ‘Middle Sector’ consisted of projects with investment in the range of Rs. 10 million to Rs. 50 million. The fourth category was ‘Delicensed Sector’, in which investment was less than Rs. 0 million and was exempted from licensing requirements. The industrial licensing policy of 1970 4 confined the role of large business houses and foreign companies to the core, heavy and export oriented sectors. The Industrial Policy Statement – 1973 With a view to prevent excessive concentration of industrial activity in the large industrial houses, this Stat ement gave preference to small and medium entrepreneurs over the large houses and foreign companies in setting up of new capacity particularly in the production of mass consumption goods.New undertakings of up to Rs. 10 million by way of fixed assets were exempted from licensing requirements for substantial expansion of assets. This exemption was not allowed to MRTP companies, foreign companies and existing licensed or registered undertakings having fixed assets of Rs. 50 million and above. The Industrial Policy Statement -1977 This Statement emphasized decentralization of industrial sector with increased role for small scale, tiny and cottage industries. It also provided for close interaction between industrial and agricultural sectors.Highest priority was accorded to power generation and transmission. It expanded the list of items reserved for exclusive production in the small scale sector from 180 to more than 500. For the first time, within the small scale sector, a tiny unit wa s defined as a unit with investment in machinery and equipment up to Rs. 0. 1 million and situated in towns or villages with a population of less than 50,000 (as per 1971 census). Basic goods, capital goods, high technology industries important for development of small scale and agriculture sectors were clearly delineated for large scale sector.It was also stated that foreign companies that diluted their foreign equity up to 40 per cent under Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) 1973 were to be treated at par with the Indian companies. The Policy Statement of 1977 also issued a list of industries where no foreign collaboration of financial or technical nature was allowed as indigenous technology was already available. Fully owned foreign companies were allowed only in highly export oriented sectors or sophisticated technology areas. For all approved foreign investments, companies were completely free to repatriate capital and remit profits, dividends, royalties, etc. Further, in o rder to ensure balanced regional development, it was decided not to issue fresh licenses for setting up new industrial units within certain limits of large metropolitan cities (more than 1 million population) and urban areas (more than 0. 5 million population). Industrial Policy Statement -1980 The industrial Policy Statement of 1980 placed accent on promotion of competition in the domestic market, technological upgradatrion and modernization of industries.Some of the socio-economic objectives spelt out in the Statement were i) optimum utilisation of installed capacity, ii) higher productivity, iii) higher employment levels, iv) removal of regional disparities, v) strengthening of agricultural base, vi) promotion of export oriented industries and vi) consumer protection against high prices and poor quality. Policy measures were announced to revive the efficiency of public sector undertakings (PSUs) by developing the management cadres in functional fields viz. operations, finance, ma rketing and information system. An automatic expansion of capacity up to five per cent per annum was allowed, particularly in the core sector and in industries with long-term export potential. Special incentives were granted to industrial units which were engaged in industrial processes and technologies aiming at optimum utilization of energy and the exploitation of alternative sources of energy. In order to boost the development of small scale industries, the investment limit was raised to Rs. 2 million in small scale units and Rs. . 5 million in ancillary units. In the case of tiny units, investment limit was raised to Rs. 0. 2 million. Industrial Policy Measures during the 1980s Policy measures initiated in the first three decades since Independence facilitated the establishment of basic industries and building up of a broadbased infrastructure in the country. The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1900), recognized the need for consolidation of these strengths and initiating policy me asures to prepare the Indian industry to respond effectively to emerging challenges. A number of measures were initiated towards technological and managerial modernization to improve productivity, quality and to reduce cost of production. The public sector was freed from a number of constraints and was provided with greater autonomy. There was some progress in the process of deregulation during the 1980s. In 1988, all industries, excepting 26 industries specified in the negative list, were exempted from licensing. The exemption was, however, subject to investment and locational limitations.The automotive industry, cement, cotton spinning, food processing and polyester filament yarn industries witnessed modernization and expanded scales of production during the 1980s. With a view to promote industrialization of backward areas in the country, the Government of India announced in June, 1988 the Growth Centre Scheme under which 71 Growth Centers were proposed to be set up throughout the country. Growth centers were to be endowed with basic infrastructure facilities such as power, water, telecommunications and banking to enable them to attract industries.Industrial Policy Statement- 1991 The Industrial Policy Statement of 1991 stated that â€Å"the Government will continue to pursue a sound policy framework encompassing encouragement of entrepreneurship, development of indigenous technology through investment in research and development, bringing in new technology, dismantling of the regulatory system, development of the capital markets and increased competitiveness for the benefit of common man†.It further added that â€Å"the spread of industrialization to backward areas of the country will be actively promoted through appropriate incentives, institutions and infrastructure investments†. The objective of the Industrial Policy Statement – 1991 was to maintain sustained growth in productivity, enhance gainful employment and achieve optimal util ization of human resources, to attain international competitiveness, and to transform India into a major partner and player in the global arena. Quite clearly, the focus of the policy was to unshackle the Indian industry from bureaucratic controls. This called for a number of far-reaching reforms : †¢ A substantial modification of Industry Licencing Policy was deemed necessary with a view to ease restraints on capacity creation, respond to emerging domestic and global opportunities by improving productivity. Accordingly, the Policy Statement included abolition of industrial licensing for most industries, barring a handful of industries for reasons of security and trategic concerns, social and environmental issues. Compulsory licencing was required only in respect of 18 industries. These included, inter alia, coal and lignite, distillation and brewing of alcoholic drinks, cigars and cigarettes, drugs and pharmaceuticals, white goods, hazardous chemicals. The small scale sector c ontinued to be reserved. Norms for setting up industries (except for industries subject to compulsory licensing) in cities with more than one million population were further liberalised. Recognising the complementarily of domestic and foreign investment, foreign direct investment was accorded a significant role in policy announcements of 1991. Foreign direct investment (FDI) up to 51 per cent foreign equity in high priority industries requiring large investments and advanced technology was permitted. Foreign equity up to 51 per cent was also allowed in trading companies primarily engaged in export activities. These important initiatives were expected to provide a boost to investment besides enabling access to high technology and marketing expertise of foreign companies. With a view to inject technological dynamism in the Indian industry, the Government provided automatic approval for technological agreements related to high priority industries and eased procedures for hiring of fore ign technical expertise. †¢ Major initiatives towards restructuring of public sector units (PSUs) were initiated, in view of their low productivity, over staffing, lack of technological upgradation and low rate of return. In order to raise resources and ensure wider public participation PSUs, it was decided to offer its shareholding stake to mutual funds, financial institutions, general public and workers. Similarly, in order to revive and rehabilitate chronically sick PSUs, it was decided to refer them to the Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction (BIFR). The Policy also provided for greater managerial autonomy to the Boards of PSUs. †¢ The Industrial Policy Statement of 1991 recognized that the Government’s intervention in investment decisions of large companies through MRTP Act had proved to be deleterious for industrial growth.Accordingly, pre-entry scrutiny of investment decisions of MRTP companies was abolished. The thrust of policy was more on cont rolling unfair and restrictive trade practices. The provisions restricting mergers, amalgamations and takeovers were also repealed. Industrial Policy Measures Since 1991 Since 1991, industrial policy measures and procedural simplifications have been reviewed on an ongoing basis. Presently, there are only six industries which require compulsory licensing. Similarly, there are only three industries reserved for the public sector.Some of important policy measures initiated since 1991 are set out below: †¢ Since 1991, promotion of foreign direct investment has been an integral part of India’s economic policy. The Government has ensured a liberal and transparent foreign investment regime where most activities are opened to foreign investment on automatic route without any limit on the extent of foreign ownership. FDI up to 100 per cent has also been allowed under automatic route for most manufacturing activities in Special Economic Zones (SEZs).More recently, in 2004, the FDI limits were raised in the private banking sector (up to 74 per cent), oil exploration (up to 100 per cent), petroleum product marketing (up to 100 per cent), petroleum product pipelines (up to 100 per cent), natural gas and LNG pipelines (up to 100 per cent) and printing of scientific and technical magazines, periodicals and journals (up to 100 per cent). In 9 February 2005, the FDI ceiling in telecom sector in certain services was increased from 49 per cent to 74 per cent. Reservation of items of manufacture exclusively in the small scale sector has been an important tenet of industrial policy. Realizing the increased import competition with the removal of quantitative restrictions since April 2001, the Government has adopted a policy of dereservation and has pruned the list of items reserved for SSI sector gradually from 821 items as at end March 1999 to 506 items as on April 6, 2005. Further, the Union Budget 2005-06 has proposed to dereserve 108 items which were identified by M inistry of Small Scale Industries.The investment limit in plant and machinery of small scale units has been raised by the Government from time to time. To enable some of the small scale units to achieve required economies of scale, a differential investment limit has been adopted for them since October 2001. Presently, there are 41 reserved items which are allowed investment limit up to Rs. 50 million instead of present limit of Rs. 10 million applicable for other small scale units. †¢ Equity participation up to 24 per cent of the total shareholding in small scale units by other industrial undertakings has been llowed. The objective therein has been to enable the small sector to access the capital market and encourage modernization, technological upgradation, ancillarisation, sub-contracting, etc. †¢ Under the framework provided by the Competition Act 2002, the Competition Commission of India was set up in 2003 so as to prevent practices having adverse impact on competitio n in markets. †¢ In an effort to mitigate regional imbalances, the Government announced a new North-East Industrial Policy in December 1997 for promoting industrialization in the North-Eastern region.This policy is applicable for the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. The Policy has provided various concessions to industrial units in the North Eastern Region, e. g. , 10 development of industrial infrastructure, subsidies under various schemes, excise and income-tax exemption for a period of 10 years, etc. North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Ltd. has been designated as the nodal disbursing agency under the Scheme. †¢ The focus of disinvestment process of PSUs has shifted from sale of minority stakes to strategic sales.Up to December 2004, PSUs have been divested to an extent of Rs. 478 billion. †¢ Apart from general policy measures, some industry specific measures have also been initiated. For instance, Elec tricity Act 2003 has been enacted which envisaged to delicense power generation and permit captive power plants. It is also intended to facilitate private sector participation in transmission sector and provide open access to grid sector. Various policy measures have facilitated increased private sector participation in key infrastructure sectors such as, telecommunication, roads and ports.Foreign equity participation up to 100 per cent has been allowed in construction and maintenance of roads and bridges. MRTP provisions have been relaxed to encourage private sector financing by large firms in the highway sector. Evidently, in the process of evolution of industrial policy in India, the Government’s intervention has been extensive. Unlike many East Asian countries which used the State intervention to build strong private sector industries, India opted for the State control over key industries in the initial phase of development. In order to promote these industries theGovernm ent not only levied high tariffs and imposed import restrictions, but also subsidized the nationalized firms, directed investment funds to them, and controlled both land use and many prices. In India, there has been a consensus for long on the role of government in providing infrastructure and maintaining stable macroeconomic policies. However, the path to be pursued toward industrial development has evolved over time. The form of government intervention in the development strategy needs to be chosen from the two alternatives: ‘Outward-looking development 1 policies’ encourage not only free trade but also the free movement of capital, workers and enterprises. By contrast, ‘inward-looking development policies’ stress the need for one’s own style of development. India initially adopted the latter strategy. The advocates of import substitution in India believed that we should substitute imports with domestic production of both consumer goods and sophist icated manufactured items while ensuring imposition of high tariffs and quotas on imports.In the long run, these advocates cite the benefits of greater domestic industrial diversification and the ultimate ability to export previously protected manufactured goods, as economies of scale, low labour costs, and the positive externalities of learning by doing cause domestic prices to become more competitive than world prices. However, pursuit of such a policy forced the Indian industry to have low and inferior technology. It did not expose the industry to the rigours of competition and therefore it resulted in low efficiency.The inferior technology and inefficient production practices coupled with focus on traditional sectors choked further expansion of the India industry and thereby limited its ability to expand employment opportunities. Considering these inadequacies, the reforms currently underway aim at infusing the state of the art technology, increasing domestic and external compet ition and diversification of the industrial base so that it can expand and create additional employment opportunities. In retrospect, the Industrial Policy Resolutions of 1948 and 1956 reflected the desire of the Indian State to achieve self sufficiency in industrial production.Huge investments by the State in heavy industries were designed to put the Indian industry on a higher long-term growth trajectory. With limited availability of foreign exchange, the effort of the Government was to encourage domestic production. This basic strategy guided industrialization until the mid-1980s. Till the onset of reform process in 1991, industrial licensing played a crucial role in channeling investments, controlling entry and expansion of capacity in the Indian industrial sector. As such industrialization occurred in a protected environment, which led to various distortions.Tariffs and quantitative controls largely kept foreign competition out of the domestic 12 market, and most Indian manufac turers looked on exports only as a residual possibility. Little attention was paid to ensure product quality, undertaking R for technological development and achieving economies of scale. The industrial policy announced in 1991, however, substantially dispensed with industrial licensing and facilitated foreign investment and technology transfers, and threw open the areas hitherto reserved for the public sector.The policy focus in the recent years has been on deregulating the Indian industry, enabling industrial restructuring, allowing the industry freedom and flexibility in responding to market forces and providing a business environment that facilitates and fosters overall industrial growth. The future growth of the Indian industry as widely believed, is crucially dependent upon improving the overall productivity of the manufacturing sector, rationalisation of the duty structure, technological upgradation, the search for export markets through promotional efforts and trade agreemen ts and creating an enabling legal environment.Bibliography 1. Ahluwalia, I. J. Productivity and Growth in Indian Manufacturing, Oxford University Press, Delhi , 1991. 2. Government of India Annual Report 2003-04, Ministry of Commerce and Industry. New Delhi. 3. Government of India Handbook of Industrial Policy and Statistics (Various Issues), Office of Economic Adviser, Ministry of Commerce and Industry. New Delhi. 4. Government of India Economic Survey 2004-05, Ministry of Finance. New Delhi

Nora essays

Nora essays Nora Helmer is a delicate, pampered wife who was spoiled by her wealthy father and later by Torvald. As Ibsen alludes, Nora is the doll of this dollhouse, as her role is to bend into the shape of the ideal housewife. If it is dancing for her husband, completing the family shopping, or playing childish games to attract Helmer's attention, Nora will do what it takes to fit the roles. As readers, we soon read that beneath the blank smile of this doll lies a web of lies, deception, and debt. Nora lives a life separated from the glittering housewife of Torvald Helmer. Nora is possible of her own triumphs and tragedies, independent of the life and decisions of her husband. Using creative symbolic animal imagery, Ibsen develops a deeper understanding of Nora's character, allowing her the capability to deceive and strike a blow for independence of women. Helmer's first spoken phrase comes from the study off-stage: "Is that my little lark twittering out there?" (346) He refers to Nora as a lark, a lighthearted, cheerful, petite songbird found in Eurasia. Helmer is most probably attempting to make the similarity with the characteristics between the bird and his wife. The name also gives a basic meaning of Nora's actions during this situation, as when he first calls her his "little lark" Nora is scurrying around the room humming. This little lark name also suggests Nora's childlike attitude, and Helmer's desire to promote her childish behavior. It illustrates Helmer's desire to cling to his false reality of a happy, simple housewife. What is even more intriguing is the physical characteristics of the bird in relationship to Nora. All larks have white outer tail feathers with their black tail, a black band across their upper head, a black line encircling the crown, and a black "mask" across the eyes. A mask is defined as a "face covering that, in ritual and theater, disguises the wearer and usually communicates an alternate ide...

Western Ideals Essays

Western Ideals Essays Western Ideals Essay Western Ideals Essay The Western Evils The infiltration of western ideals into the Japanese Culture had forever changed customs and traditions of the Japanese society as a whole. Yet was it as it was stated in a 1941 pamphlet issued by the Japanese Ministry of Education entitled â€Å"The Way of the Subjects. † â€Å"this country has been widely seeking knowledge in the world since the Meiji Restoration, thereby fostering and maintaining the prosperity of the state. With the influx of European and American culture in this country, however, individualism, liberalism, utilitarianism and materialism began to assert themselves, so that the traditional character of the country was much impaired and the virtuous habits and customs bequeathed by our ancestors were affected unfavorably† Had the infiltration of individualism,liberalism,utilitarianism and materialism corrupt the once glorious and honorable society of Japan? Or perhaps had it enlightened their society to a new way of thinking? To answer these questions Id like to give a brief highlight of how women were viewed in Japanese Culture prior to the infiltration of the western ideology. To do so I will be referencing Andrew Gordons book entitled: A Modern History of Japan. To start off Id to address the role of women prior to the infiltration of western ideology. More precisely the the views of the Orthodox in the Tokugawa society, that being that â€Å"women should be kept ignorant and in the kitchen. †[1] However that wasnt the case rather it was that this belief was more to keep women as submissive an obedient . It was further brought out that women worked as managers of farms for the wealthy in addition to their regular household duties. [2] So exactly how did this system change after the infiltration of the western ideology? Well to answer this question Im going to reference Funichiro Tanizakis book entitled: Some Prefer Nettles and Nakano Makikos book entitled: Makikos Diary. When we look upon the example set by Makiko in Nakano Makikos book entitled: Makikos Diary, we can see no change in the sense of a submissive an obedient partner. An example of this can be taken from how Makikos spouse frequently parties and she waits up for him every night. [3] However the change that is displayed by Makiko is that of becoming more materialistic. This can be seen through out the text as she speaks of the gifts that they had received an especially when she talks about the camera that they had came to posses. [4] So what of the example set forth by Funichiro Tanizakis book entitled: Some Prefer Nettles? Well as seen in the beginning of the book Kanames wife Misako was anything but loyal. This is clearly show through the fact that his wife had another lover by the name of Aso. [5] Another theme that found its way through this book as well is the materialistic desires of the people in their society. A picture is painted through the illustration of the prostitute that Kaname goes to see by the name of louise. In the book it speaks of how she has a taste for things western and of course money. [6] Given these examples can it honestly be said that the infiltration of western ideology had corrupted the Japanese Culture? Well as we can clearly see, yes there was a big difference between what was acceptable prior to the infiltration of western ideology, then to as it was after. However to say that it was because of the infiltration of western ideology that made this all come to be is rather a foolish statement. The fact is that these ideologies; individualism, liberalism, utilitarianism and materialism are merely nothing more then human nature. It can honestly be said that with the infiltration of western ideology the Japanese people were allowed to be more free to express themselves more freely then before. Then again I maybe wrong, partly because according to the Japanese Ministry of Education I have been corrupted by these western evils. [1]Andrew Gordon: â€Å"A Modern History of Japan† (Oxford University Press,2009), 32 [2]Gordon, 33 [3]Nakano Makiko, â€Å" Makikos Diary†(Stanford University Press,1982),102 [4]Makiko,150-152 [5]Funichiro Tanizaki, â€Å"Some Prefer Nettles† (First Vintage International Edition,1955),4 [6]Tanizaki,165-171

A Beginners Guide to Delphi

A Beginners Guide to Delphi Our  Delphi Programming site proudly presents free online programming courses for (beginner) Delphi developers! Quick Launch Turbo Delphi Tutorial: For Novice and Non-ProgrammersThis series of tutorials is oriented to those who want to take their chance in the world of software development, it is designed to teach the complete beginner (read: non-programmer) how to become a programmer using Delphi.Delphi for BeginnersThis free online course is perfect for beginner developers as well as for those who want a broad overview of the art of programming Win32 applications with Borland Delphi. Focus on Delphi 6.Delphi Database Programming. You can take this as an Email CourseDevelopers will learn how to design, develop and test a database application using ADO with Delphi. This course focuses on the most common uses of ADO in a Delphi application: Connecting to a database using TADOConnection, work with Tables and Queries, handle database exception, create reports, etc.Learning Object Oriented Programming with DelphiExplore the true power of Delphi OOP: learn how to create your own classes, instantiate objects at runtime, use association, composition and other OOP topics. Using the TDBGrid componentContrary to most other Delphi data-aware controls, the DBGrid component has many nice features and is more powerful than you would have thought. The standard DBGrid does its job of displaying and manipulating records from a dataset in a tabular grid. However, there are many ways (and reasons) why you should consider customizing the look and feel of a DBGrid...Creating Custom ComponentsEverything about creating custom controls and components in Delphi. The ultimate source. From tutorials for starters to more advanced materials.Introduction to COM ProgrammingCOM stands for Component Object Model. It allows you to create COM objects that are not specific to any language, and in some cases, even platforms. For instance, COM objects can be ported to a Unix system. COM also allows you to create COM Objects that will be instantiated on a different machine across the world if you so desired.(Fast Forward to) Delphi for .NETHeres a series of articles designed with o ne goal in mind: to provide a quick and dirty introduction to the world of .NET programming with Delphi. If you are looking for what you need to know about Delphi for .NET - search no further! ASP.NET Web ProgrammingDevelopers will learn how to design, develop and debug ASP.Net web application using Borland Delphi for .Net. The chapters will cover the fundamental elements of creating Web applications (working with Web Forms, Web Services, and User Controls) using Delphi, including the Integrated Development Environment (IDE) and the Delphi for .Net language.Windows API (no VCL) SeriesThis free online course is perfect for intermediate Delphi developers as well as for those who want a broad overview of the art of Windows API programming with Borland Delphi.

The Emergence and development of landscape painting Article

The Emergence and development of landscape painting - Article Example The essay "The Emergence and development of landscape painting" explores landscape painting, its development, and emergence. A painter must capture the actual features of the scenery ensuring the use of appropriate colors among other elements of the art. The art has grown progressively to become a fundamental aspect of nearly every form of painting, landscape painting often form appropriate backgrounds for numerous paintings. Landscape painting has been an integral aspect of panting among other types of art for numerous years. However, the first actual landscape paintings were the frescos developed in Greece around the 1500BCE. Such were a series of paintings that had no human depiction. Besides the frescos, numerous other paintings at the time had depicted natural scenery owing to the importance of nature. Painters captured hunting scenes provided a detailed representation of the natural scenery thus giving rise to landscape painting. Landscape painting thus changed throughout the h istory of art. During such periods as the medieval, the renascence and earlier centuries, numerous artists contributed to the development of the landscape maintaining by adding new twists thus contributing to the development of the contemporary landscape painting. During the medieval times, landscape painting remained a reserve as backgrounds in other paintings. Most painters at the time depicted natural scenery only as part of other paintings. As explained earlier, natural scenery forms appropriate backgrounds for painters.

Love, Speech Pathologist treatment of dementia patients with Research Paper

Love, Speech Pathologist treatment of dementia patients with disruptive behaviors - Research Paper Example This aims at determining how to ensure the quality of patients and family members’ lives in situations of dementia can be improved. According to pathologists, despite the fact that memory loss has been a  prominent  finding  lately  in most dementia patients, the main issue that contributes to institutionalization is the disruptive behavior, such as unnecessary speech associated with the disease. Some of the main symptoms associated with the disease include sleep disturbance, unnecessary speeches, aggression, depression, agitation and psychotic-related features. In addition, behavioral symptoms may be a  result  of dementia illness, Iatrogeneric causes and other  concomitant  illness. However, the  main  error  made by a majority in managing behavioral disturbances is that treatment commences without  identification  of the symptom precipitant. It is  essential  to ensure that before anyone commences treatment the identification of the  disruptive  behaviors and causes is done (Teri, Logsdon, Uomoto, & McCurry, 2012). To ensure that  treatment  of a sick  person is  sati sfactory, the patient’s family and pathologist should have a  sound  understanding  of the issue under treatment. Depression is one of the symptoms and the disruptive behavior of dementia that affects up to 20% of most patients. Depression can be in the form of unnecessary speeches because of  the disease-related neuronal loss and, less frequently,  reaction  to a disease process. For patients suffering from vascular dementia,  depression  mostly  follows the left cerebral hemisphere stroke. Dementia-related diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease, have many patients showing symptoms of depression through their speeches. In most cases it is difficult to  diagnose  patients with depression due to dementia because apathy is  common in both disorders  (Teri, Logsdon, Uomoto, & McCurry,

The Theories of Financial Intermediation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The Theories of Financial Intermediation - Essay Example A lot of these imperfections direct towards specific kinds of transaction costs. These asymmetries can produce unfavourable selection, they can be temporary, generate moral exposure, and they can result a costly verification and enforcement. As proven on different studies, financial intermediaries come out to at least partially surmount these costs. Based on the interpretation of Leland and Pyle (32); financial intermediation act as an alliance of information-sharing, and intermediary coalitions as argued by Diamond (51) can attain economies of scale. He also projected that financial intermediaries can effectively monitor returns by acting on behalf of ultimate savers. Hart (1995) explained that savers optimistically value the intermediations in terms of ultimate investments. According to Campbell and Kracaw (863-882) financial intermediations can create a useful incentive result of short-term debt on banker's behalf. The deposit funding can turn out the right incentives in managing the bank. A subtle financial organization necessary to control the bank managers produced illiquid assets (Diamond 393; Miller 21). In instances where the borrower in the bank chose direct finance; the role of a brokerage is in acted by financial intermediaries as explained by Fama (39-58) as investment banks. On this situation, reputation is at risk and according to Campbell and Kracaw (885) in financing, the financier's reputation as well as the borrower's is relevant. Second Principle: The Transaction Costs Approach This approach agrees with the concept of complete markets unlike the initial approach specified. It agrees that transaction process is of no convexities. In this approach, the financial intermediaries using economies of scale in the transaction process work in coalitions with borrowers. Many experts explained that the concept of transaction costs comprises not only monetary transaction costs, but at the same time covers auditing, searches and monitoring costs. Therefore, the function of the financial intermediaries is to transform specific financial claims into a so-called qualitative asset in this example. It is called offering diversified opportunities through liquidity as Ross (23-40) stated. The provision of liquidity is a main function for investors and savers and highly for corporate customers, in which the provision of diversification is welcomed in institutional as well as personal financing. Oldfield and Santomero (WP #95) in their submitted work paper stipulated that this l iquidity plays a key role in asset pricing theory. Financial intermediation then becomes exogenous with transaction costs. Third Principle: Principle in accordance to the regulation of money production Regulation affects solvency and liquidity inside the financial market or organization. Diamond (414) argued that the capital of the bank affects its refinancing ability, bank safety, and ability to extract repayment from the borrowers. Regulation as viewed on the basis of legality convenes as a vital factor in financial economy. However, the actions of the

The social and political films of the 1930s Essay

The social and political films of the 1930s - Essay Example Even though equipment was new, but American public was poor at the time, as a result by 1933 movie attendance fell by 40 percent. To survive, the industry trimmed salaries and production costs and also shut down one third of the US theatres. The depression 1gave rise also to such movies that were more propaganda in nature. For example due to influx of refugees from Germany, a lot of Germans were even working in the movie industry led to the Anti-Nazi themes. It was under this feeling that by the end of decade, fronts were formed against Anti-Nazism, such as Holy Wood Anti Nazi League that explicitly made Anti-Nazi movies, a move far from away from entertainment. The rise of communism also made its presence in Hollywood. In 1930s Hollywood had its own Communist party under the leadership of screenwriter John Howard Lawson, who championed the cause of intellectual rights. Our Daily bread (1934) is a movie based on Communism in the backdrop of Depression, which portrays that communal spirit could enable a community to overcome the economic problems. The Great Depression 2increased poverty; while Prohibition shifted ideologies, which were clearly reflected in the movies. The Depression broke the promise of American Dream; many thought of a revolution to bring change in the White House. In 1932 the American Legion mentioned that the reason for chaos was American political system that needs to be changed. The response it was believed is revolution, as capitalism failed; Stalin seemed the rescuer for new setup. This provided dictatorship craze 3in Hollywood, a series of films that have strong tyrannical personalities, who with all their flaws had the power to steer the nation. The Power and Glory (1931) is made around such character, the railroad tycoon Tom Garner, who in the wake of railroad crisis brings workers to heel through his haughty personality. A times comes, when Garners happens to kill 400 workers to suppress strike, again shows that cruelty is acceptable, if it can bail out the people. Employee's Entrance (1933) shows the ruthless world of the business. The film depicts establishment of business since 1878 throughout the roaring twenties with a tone, that in business there is no room for sympathy, again is depiction of blind power from Hollywood. The rise of Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany and political corruption also produced characters for the movies. Colombia pictures presented an alternative to American inefficient democracy of the time, Mussolini Speaks (1933), where the pre-credit inscription mentions " This picture is dedicated to a man of the people whose deeds for his people will ever be an inspiration to all mankind." The narrator of the movie praises in the preface and mentions that, "Whether we agree with a man's policy or not doesn't matter. We're interested in a man if he marks himself a leader", depicts American society loss of faith on its leadership. This yearning for strong leadership is based on the assumption that even if leadership is flawed and tyrannical, if it knows, how things are done is better than democracy. Similarly in Gabriel over the White House (1932) again the need for a strong leadership is repeated, when newly elected president Judson Hammond is shown to be a lackey of his party willing to follow the party line

Family assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Family assessment - Essay Example Moreover, the house is adequately spacious with every member of the family enjoying his/her own personal space. The family owns a dog. The house has a solar water-heating panel with fixed air conditioners. The family does not own any firearm. The house is equipped with smoke detector equipment in virtually all rooms. There are three fire extinguishers in the house. One is located in the living room, one in the corridor downstairs, and the other one in the corridor upstairs. All the medication is kept in the bathroom shelves while other chemicals and cleaning agents are safely kept in the store located in the garage. The windows and doors of the house are firmly protected with system locks that are synced with a sophisticated security system. The house has one emergency exit at the rear end of the building. The Andersons own a family van that aids in their transportation. They exercise road safety by emphasizing on good practices like fastening of seatbelts. All the family members are satisfied with the level of security in their homes. Every family faces a number of challenges. These challenges arise from the complex nature of relationships within the family setting (Duvall, 1962). The Andersons are a very small family comprising of two parents, father and mother, and a daughter. Both parents are employed and have day jobs and subsequently provide for the needs of the family. A number of roles exist that either mutually shared by each family member or left exclusively to another member. Mr. and Mrs. Anderson are responsible for catering to the emotional needs of their daughter Vivian. They are tasked with the objective of providing counseling sessions and emotional support to their daughter in order to prevent instances of emotional stress. Moreover, both parents provide each other with emotional support in times of emotional stress resulting from various undertakings. No overlap in the emotional needs existed where one family member’s

Security proposal for college Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Security proposal for college - Coursework Example We have also demonstrated our capability to fulfill these needs. We look forward to an opportunity to discuss this proposal and answer any questions that may arise. Thank you in advance. Sierra Joint Community College Security Needs Assessment After an appraisal of the current state of your security system, Gibraltar Security Firm has identified the following as the most pressing areas that need to be addressed: 1. There is a need for an emergency security management system in the college. As of now, there is lack of properly demarcated assembly points, emergency communication systems and emergency preparedness personnel. 2. Streamlining of responsibilities in inventory is necessary in several of your departments. There is lack of traceability in the laboratory and the general stores department due to overlap of duties and lack of clear restrictions as to who has access to which aspects of the department. This creates a possibility of pilferage that may be untraceable. 3. The distrib ution of security lights within the college needs to be addressed. Whereas some sections of the college are well lit including the administration blocks and laboratories and lecture halls, other critical areas such as the student hostels, parking lot, the perimeter fence and infrequently used roads bear poor lighting. 4. The distribution of the existing security personnel is wanting. ... Currently, the security cameras in the college serve only the administration blocks and the finance department which leaves room for security breach in several other critical areas especially while appreciating the fact that the college is considerably sizeable and filled with infrastructure and facilities. 6. The library is in need of a modernized security system. Currently, security personnel bear the responsibility of ensuring that only borrowed material gets out of the library. Through a complete overhaul and implementing barcodes on books and detectors at the library entrance, library resources will be secured adequately. 7. There is need for an intrusion detection system serving the most critical areas of the college. Whereas the perimeter and internal fences are in a good state, there is always a possibility that they may be breached. Hence, areas such as the administration block, finance, laboratories and stores departments are in need of intrusion detection devices. Out of t his analysis, the threat probability ranking for your college is 2 (1: Frequent, 2: Probable, 3: Occasional, 4: Remote, 5: Improbable). Thus, there is a clear and urgent need to address these issues and implement a proper security system at Sierra Joint Community College Security. Proposed Action Plan The goal of the proposed action plan is to improve the probability ranking of the college to 4. The objectives that will guide the proposed plan towards the set goal are as follows: 1. To provide a security system that assures all members of the Sierra Joint Community College Security community a sense of security. 2. To establish a system composed of security personnel integrated appropriately in the overall operation to maximize

Family assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Family assessment - Essay Example Moreover, the house is adequately spacious with every member of the family enjoying his/her own personal space. The family owns a dog. The house has a solar water-heating panel with fixed air conditioners. The family does not own any firearm. The house is equipped with smoke detector equipment in virtually all rooms. There are three fire extinguishers in the house. One is located in the living room, one in the corridor downstairs, and the other one in the corridor upstairs. All the medication is kept in the bathroom shelves while other chemicals and cleaning agents are safely kept in the store located in the garage. The windows and doors of the house are firmly protected with system locks that are synced with a sophisticated security system. The house has one emergency exit at the rear end of the building. The Andersons own a family van that aids in their transportation. They exercise road safety by emphasizing on good practices like fastening of seatbelts. All the family members are satisfied with the level of security in their homes. Every family faces a number of challenges. These challenges arise from the complex nature of relationships within the family setting (Duvall, 1962). The Andersons are a very small family comprising of two parents, father and mother, and a daughter. Both parents are employed and have day jobs and subsequently provide for the needs of the family. A number of roles exist that either mutually shared by each family member or left exclusively to another member. Mr. and Mrs. Anderson are responsible for catering to the emotional needs of their daughter Vivian. They are tasked with the objective of providing counseling sessions and emotional support to their daughter in order to prevent instances of emotional stress. Moreover, both parents provide each other with emotional support in times of emotional stress resulting from various undertakings. No overlap in the emotional needs existed where one family member’s

Issue analysis paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Issue analysis paper - Essay Example The act was to be financed within the next ten years for it to be fully operational to help those who are unable to insure as depicted by the health act. As a result, millions of people will benefit from employment based insurance coverage than in the absence of Affordable Care Act (ACA).The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimated the government budget and effects for the ten years. The Affordable Care Act will be financed thus delivering a devastating analysis of the inefficiencies and problematic social costs of Obamacare. The Affordable Care Act still faces opposition from Congressional Budget Office (CBO) since the key selling point of Affordable Care Act was to cover a significant number of above 30 million Americans who lacked it. As per today, the CBO is out criticizing the Affordable Care Act in America that within a decade, 6 million people will not be given health care insurance from their companies or from the employers due to Affordable Care Act (john 45). This makes the Americans to see as if the act was politically passed so as only target a certain group of Americans and segregating those who can be able to acquire the insurance coverage. The estimated expenditure of Affordable Care act will be about $2 trillion within the next 10 years meaning that there would be disruption of the United States medical system since the federal government will not be able to achieve the objectives, of providing coverage to 30 million Americans. The Congressional Budget Office maintains that within the ten years the same number of 30 million Americans will lack insurance as before since the Affordable Care Act will collapse within the next 5 years. Another opposing idea of the ACA is that the poor people will get subsidies and after they achieve certain level of compensation then the subsidy will disappear when one reaches a higher pay level. Basing their

Technology Ethics in the Classroom Essay Example for Free

Technology Ethics in the Classroom Essay Carolyn Smith EDU-225 Instructional Technology July 10, 2011 Kathleen Sherbon Technology Ethics I the Classroom Every day, businesses, schools, and individuals depend on computers to perform a variety of significant tasks. Such as tracking sales, recording student grades, creating reports, Web, and sending e-mail. People increasingly rely on computers to create, store, and manage critical information, so it is important to ensure that computers and software are protected from loss, damage, and misuse. School districts, for example, must take precautions to guarantee that student information, such as grades, attendance rates, personal and family data, and learning problems, is protected from loss and kept confidential Gary B. Shelly (2010). In 2000, congress passed the children’s internet protection act (CIPA) in order to protect children from obscene and graphic materials with in most school districts. The universal natural of the internet it is of the up most important to protect our students online with the ever changing technology and lack of decorum, the internet can be rude and take advantage of others. In order to protect my students from internet predators and any inappropriate material I need to add internet safety to the classroom curriculum so that the student can have a constant prompt on how to use the internet safely. Talking to parents about internet policy, also have parents and students sign a technology agreement that has all the rules and consequence for parent and students to read before student is able to use school technology.

Manufacturing Resource Planning Models

Manufacturing Resource Planning Models Manufacturing Resource Planning Models under Uncertainty and Commonality for Multi-products Multi-period Multistage Production Environment Chapter 3: Literature Review In this chapter, the following areas of research are investigated to lay the foundation for the intended mathematical models: manufacturing resources planning background, benefits and limitations; manufacturing resources planning models under different uncertainties; and commonality in manufacturing resources planning models. 3.1 Evolution of manufacturing environment The field of production planning and control has undergone tremendous change in the last 50 years. Prior to the 1960s, inventory was controlled by a manual system, utilizing various techniques: stock replenishment, reorder points, EOQ (economic order quantity) (McGarrie, 1998), and ABC classifications, to name a few (Ptak, 1991). Gilbert and Schonberger (1983) provide a history of production control, while Lee (1993) comments that by the mid-1970s, enough experience of material requirements planning (MRP) had been gained and the importance of the master production schedule (MPS) was realized. In the 1950s, MRP were the first off-the-shelf business applications to support the creation and maintenance of material master data and bill-of-materials (demand-based 14 planning) across all products and parts in one or more plants. These early packages were able to process mass data but only with limited processing depth (Klaus et al., 2000). From the 1940s to the early 1960s, material control consisted of basic ‘order point formulae used to maintain a level average inventory balance. In 1965, Joseph Orlicky of the J. I. Case Company devised a new approach to material management, called material requirement planning (MRP) to serve as a platform to answer four questions, known as the ‘Universal Manufacturing Equation (Towers et al., 2005): What are we going to make, What does it take to make, What do we have and What do we have to get. The respective answer of the first three questions lie in the blueprint of production plan: the master production schedule (MPS), the bill of material (BOM) and the physical inventory records themselves. While MRP was certainly a vast improvement over simple manual method, the potential to stretch its boundary even further was soon recognized. A companys production is constrained by not only its inventory need but also by equipment and personnel capacity, facet of the plant not considered in the Universal Manufacturing Equation. MRP at its core is a time phased order release system that schedules and releases manufacturing work orders and purchase orders, so that sub-assemblies and components arrive at the assembly station just as they are required. As competitive pressures increased and users became more sophisticated, MRP evolved and expanded to include more business functions such as product costing and marketing. In 1975 the next generation system, Closed-Loop MRP, integrated capacity factors into the MRP structure and used feedback on production status to maintain the validity of planning decisions as requirements changed. One crucial link in the manufacturing decision chain was still missing- the financial point of view. With advent of computer system in the early 1980s the development of effective shop-floor scheduling tools had at that time been dominated by the top down approach of manufacturing resource planning known as MRP II for controlling production operations (Towers et al., 2005). The introduction of MRP II five years later served to bridge the gap. The operational Closed-Loop MRP plan, presented in material units such as pieces and pounds, was translated into financial dollar terms, enabling the entire organization to work off a single set of data. Simulation capability was also developed to answer ‘what if planning questions with action oriented replies. A major purpose of MRP II is to integrate primary functions (i.e. production, marketing and finance) and other functions such as personnel, engineering and purchasing into the planning process to improve the efficiency of the manufacturing enterprise (Chen, 2001, Chung and Snyder, 2000, Mabert et al., 2001). MRP II has certain extensions like rough cut capacity planning and capacity requirements planning for production scheduling on the shop floor as well as feedback from manufacturing shops on the progress of fabrication. Since the 1980s, the number of MRP II installations has continued to increase, as MRP II applications became available on mini and micro computers (Siriginidi, 2000). Like MRP, MRP II focused on the manufacturing process. Then MRP II was extended towards the more technical areas that cover the product development and production processes. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) supplied the entire conceptual framework for the integration of all business administrative and technical functions of a company, such as finance, sales and distribution, and human resources (Klaus et al., 2000). The next stage of MRP II evolution was just-in-time (JIT) methodology that combined with the plummeting price of computing to create the islands of automation in late 1980s. Over the last 60 years, many PPC systems and philosophies have been developed. These include material requirements planning (MRP), manufacturing resource planning (MRP II), enterprise resource planning (ERP), just in time (JIT), optimized production technology (OPT), advanced production scheduling (APS), supply chain management (SCM) and customer relationship management (CRM), either used individually or jointly (Koh, 2004). 3.1.1 Material requirement planning (MRP) Kulonda (2000) descried the evolution of MRP, dividing it in three different worlds. In the first world, MPS items typically are finished end items made to stock; MPS is stated in terms of forecast item demand converted to a series of production lots via time-phased order points or other rules. In the second world, the MPS could conceivably be stated as end items built entirely to order. If response time were not an issue, this approach would work quite well. Competitive force, however, often require shorter response times and inevitably some stocking of at least the longest lead time items occur. A relatively large number of different components are assembled to complete an end product that may have many specific variants. The third world of MRP has all the complexity of the second world with the additional complication that relatively numerous end items are built from relatively few raw materials. This can be visualized in part level count charts shown in 3.1. Within the MRP system a number of rules need to be specified. They include: acceptable lot sizes, safety stocks and reject allowances. There are three principles of MRP. They are: dependent on demand for the final product; netting of inventory with expected deliveries and open orders to give a balance on-hand; and time phasing by using information on lead times and needs. Three basic MRP inputs to the system are: master production schedule (MPS); the structured BOM for the MPS; and information on inventories, open orders and lead times. The aim of MRP systems is to minimize cost of inventories and maintain customer service levels. MRP benefits include the ability to rapidly re-plan and re-schedule in response to changes in a dynamic environment. It is flexible and responsive to the customer needs (Hines, 2004). The successes and disappointments of MRP as well as the key shortcomings of MRP (material requirement planning) are studied by Plenert (1999). He investigates consequences of the deficiencies means if they are not corrected. The difficulties encountered by firms in the implementation process of MRP may be traced back to a number of factors. The complexity of MRP systems, which, of course, is a relative concept varying according to the level of knowledge and experience available inside the firm prior to implementation (Wortmann, 1998, Wilson et al., 1994, Luscombe, 1994). There are usually several parameters to be initiated when implementing standard software. A considerable amount of intensive training is required. In fact, even though end-users are usually trained on a limited amount of functionality, key users need to acquire considerable technical competence. The organizations simply under-estimate the extent to which they have to change in order to accommodate their purchase. The effective management of technological change requires transformational leadership (Brown, 1994). One of the issues largely felt as critical concerns the resistance of managers and personnel to the organizational change that is induced by the adoption of new technologies. To this regard, several authors have underlined the importance of a sound involvement of shop-floor workers (Sommer, 1998, Weill et al., 1991). Valuable relevance has also been placed in the referring literature to technological problems, such as the unsuitability of MRP systems to optimize the internal workflow. In fact, frequent changes in schedules, a problem referred to as production nervousness, is an obstacle to successful implementation of MRP systems (Duchessi et al., 1998). Material Requirements Planning (MRP) has fallen into disfavor in 1980s, as demonstrated by the extensive literature and conference material coming out of organizations like the American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) which discuss its shortcomings (Berger, 1987). MRP has received strong challenges of its effectiveness from Japan. It is believed that the only thing which is still keeping so many manufacturers with MRP is the difficulty in converting to other (Plenert, 1999). Looking at MRPs basic philosophy, we should be able to focus our scheduling only on what materials are needed, and when they are needed (Plenert, 1990b, Ritzman et al., 1984, Chase and Aquilano, 1995, Lee and Schniederjans, 1994, Nahmias, 1997, Schroder et al., 1981). MRP allows greater flexibility in product customization. The most obvious shortcoming in MRP usage is its focus on labor efficiency. Labor is not the resource that we need to be efficient at, especially since it causes inefficiencies in our most critical resource, materials. We need to minimize our routings, shortening lead times as much as possible. We need to do our buffering using safety capacity (labor and machine capacity buffers), not safety stock (materials capacity buffers) (Plenert, 1999). We should minimize the non-value-added steps to make them as efficient as possible. The other big builders of inventory are time and the large batch size. 3.1.2 Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II) The theory of MRPII has been well discussed in the literature and focuses are normally put on concept, methodology, application and future development (Ip and Yam, 1998). MRP II (Manufacturing Resource Planning) is a hierarchically structured information system which is based on the idea of controlling all flows of materials and goods by integrating the plans of sales, finance and operations. The levels in an MRP II concept as outlined are applied to two plans in particular (Zapfel, 1996): Business Planning including Resource Requirements Planning (RRP) and Master Production Scheduling (MPS) including Rough-cut Capacity Planning (RCCP). Business planning level of a company identifies its objectives. The business plan integrates the plans from sales, finance and operations. The planned aggregate sales income, the planned cost of sales and operations, and all other expenses per planning period provide a basis for calculating the planned net income of the firm. The planning horizon is often a year or longer and a planning period a month or longer. To be feasible, the production plan is examined by the so-called resource requirements planning (RRP); that is, the resources required by a given aggregate production plan can be calculated. MRP II offers simulation capabilities and marries the operating system with the financial system so that what-if questions can be answered using the software system. If the business plan leads to resource requirements which are not feasible or which are unsatisfactory, the user can change the plan and a new simulation run is started to calculate the modified resource requirements. These s teps can be repeated until a feasible and satisfactory business plan is achieved. The aggregate production plan, accepted by the user, forms an important basis for master production scheduling. MRP II tends to link manufacturing, engineering, marketing, finance and management (Yusuf and Little, 1998); production operations-inventory production control, purchasing with production planning, Capacity Planning and Master Scheduling (Turbide, 1990); sales, logistics, production, engineering and supporting functions, the broad ingredients of almost all Manufacturing organization (Ip and Yam, 1998). It may also include costumer service- order entry, sales analysis, forecasting- with financial applications. The total is a single information control system that shares data among the various applications for the mutual benefit (Turbide, 1990). MRP II operates in a â€Å"pull† manner at the planning level. It is used for high-level planning of demand and inventory functions and preliminary capacity evaluations. Ip and Yam (1998) afford a master plan which integrates the technology and management of the strategic elements, problem definition, MRP II solutions, technical and procedural design, and implementation management in order to minimize the frustration and conflicts universally found in MRP II implementation process as well as to reduce disconnection amongst different stages of the implementation process. Ideally MRP II addresses operational planning in units; financial planning in money terms, and has simulation capability to answer â€Å"what-if† questions. It is made up of a variety of functions, each linked together: business planning, production planning, master production scheduling, material requirements planning, capacity requirements planning and the execution systems for capacity and priority. Outputs from these systems would be integrated with financial reports, such as the business plan, purchase commitment report, chipping budget, inventory production in money terms, etc. Manufacturing Resource Planning is a direct outgrowth and extension of a Material Resource Planning (MRP) (Higgins et al., 1998). 3.1.2.1 MRP II definitions: ‘If I had to sum up MRP II in one word, the word I would choose is discipline. Allowed three words, they would be discipline/performance measurement Sheldon (1991). He detailed the total implementation process, from inception to completion and divided the process into six steps, namely, education, common goal, fitness for use, accountability, performance measurement and systems/tools. In Table 3.1, the definition of MRP II is summarized. Table 3.1: Definition of MRP II Definition Reference MRP II is a well-defined process or set of calculations that is used to develop plans for the acquisition of the materials needed for production. (Turbide, 1990) MRP II is an information control philosophy that is often translated into software products containing, among other capabilities the MRP calculation function. MRP II is a system designed for managing all the resources of a manufacturing company. It consists of a comprehensive set of planning tools and techniques which integrate all functional areas of an organization (Tremblay, 1991) MRP II is a method for the effective planning of all resources of a manufacturing company. (Dougherty and Wallace, 1992) Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) is a long promising method that simplifies all the complex tasks of manufacturing management. (Chambers, 1996) MRP II is a hierarchically structured information system which is based on the idea of controlling all flows of materials and goods by integrating the plans of sales, finance and operations. (Zapfel, 1996) Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II) is a structured approach to optimize a companys internal Supply Chain. (Higgins et al., 1998) MRP II is a method for the effective planning of all resources of the manufacturing company. MRP II is an effective management system that has excellent planning and scheduling capability which can offer dramatic increases in customer service, significant gains in productivity, much higher inventory turns, and greater reduction in material costs. (Ip and Yam, 1998) MRP II system is a proactive materials strategy. It is a dynamic system and can adapt to change as it reflects upon the latest information in its planned order releases. (Towers et al., 2005) 3.1.2.2 MRP II benefits: The potential benefits those may receive from the MRP II are summarized below: Empirical research suggests that companies able to implement MRP II successfully report enhanced competitive positions, improved customer service levels, a better financial position, increased plant efficiency, heightened morale in production, more effective co-ordination with marketing and finance, more efficient production scheduling and reduced inventory levels, fewer component shortages, reduced manufacturing costs and lead times and improvements in inventory turnover (Humphreys et al., 2001, Brown and Roberts, 1992, Roberts and Barrar, 1992). When customers and suppliers (internal or external) request information that have been fully integrated throughout the Supply Chain or when executives require integrated strategies and tactics in areas such as manufacturing, inventory, procurement and accounting, MRP II systems collate the data for analysis and transform the data into useful information that companies can use to support business decision-making (Broatch, 2001). MRP II systems, if implemented successfully, enhance and redesign business processes to eliminate non-value-added activities and allow companies to focus on core and truly value-added activities (Broatch, 2001). The focus of MRP II computer systems is on the efficiency and effectiveness of the internal processes. It offers a way to streamline and align business processes, increase operational and manufacturing efficiencies and bring order out of chaos (Nah, 2002). MRP II systems minimize the time and effort required to process business data and maximizes the application of that information. By facilitating data exchange throughout the organization, a MRP II system enables to coordinate such crucial activities as production planning, material planning, capacity planning and shop floor control (Plenert, 1999). MRP II is concerned mainly with scheduling of activities and the management of inventories. It is particularly useful where there is a need to produce components, items or sub-assemblies, which themselves are later used in the production of a final product. Organizations can improve their overall customer service through consistently meeting delivery promises, shortening delivery times and having products on hand when customer orders are received. MRP II can provide the necessary management information to ensure delivery promises can be kept. Where there is volatility in demand with unpredictable customer requirements and complex product structures, the information management capability of MRP II is particularly relevant (Towers et al., 2005). A well implemented MRP II system can: provide an organization with reliable lead times; meet its service delivery performance requirements; contribute to stable and consistent lead times and well informed decision-making; maintain lower level of safety stock; reduce the average inventory level and reduce inventory investments to a minimum (Towers et al., 2005). The uncertainty of demand can be minimized due to the fact that MRP II can provide an organization with a clear picture of the demand for a particular item and when organizations know their future needs they can negotiate their purchase agreements with suppliers and receive quantity discounts improving their financial position (Towers et al., 2005). Successful MRP II users have typically reported as much as 15 percent gain in manufacturing productivity, 50 percent reduction in overtime, 33 percent reduction in inventory investment and 80 percent reduction in inventory shortages (Towers et al., 2005). MRP II provides better control over the quantity and timing of deliveries of raw materials, parts, sub-assemblies and assemblies to production operations. 3.1.2.3 Pitfalls of MRP II: The main pitfalls of MRP II from various authenticated literature are listed below: Impressive though the benefits are, there is evidence suggesting that, as with so many similar technologies, few companies are able to maximize them. White et al. (1982) consider that 50 per cent of organizations do not achieve their objectives. Archer (1991) has said that 70 per cent of systems may be regarded as failures. Ho et al. (1992) has stated that ‘few firms have been able to realize the full potential offered by MRP II. While relative percentages of successful and unsuccessful implementations differ from study to study, each demonstrates a surprisingly high failure rate. Implementation of MRP II system requires major managerial innovations and organizational changes in addition to the installation of computer hardware and software (Lau et al., 2002). The heart of an MRP II system is MRP. MRP II does consider resource capacity level when generating the POR schedule. If an overload is identified, it will flag and recommend the user to reschedule. The question is how frequent should the user reschedule? Both Ho et al. (1995) and Sridharan and LaForge (1989) showed that rescheduling induces system nervousness, which leads to further underperformance. MRP II has been criticized by a number of authors on the grounds that few benefits accrue for high implementation costs (Burns et al., 1991, Sum and Yang, 1993). Unsuccessful MRP II implementation not only deprives companies of potentially huge benefits but also results in financial losses and disruptions in operations (Towers et al., 2005). MRP II concept is only partially suited to production planning in the case of uncertain demand. There is little help with the necessary aggregation and disaggregation process, especially when demand uncertainty exists. It is difficult for the user of MRP II to find a robust aggregate plan for master production schedule (Zapfel, 1996). Critics of MRP II points to the rigidity of the process: the logic that demands batches and multiple; the fixed lead time which takes no account of current capacity; the standard queue concept in front of a work center etc. Increasing competitive pressure, manifested by reduced lead times, smaller batch sizes, lower stocks and ever more demanding customers have pushed MRP II to its limits (Porter et al., 1996). 3.1.2.4 Reasons for failure: One of the principal reasons for the failure of MRP II and other large technologically sophisticated systems is that organizations simply underestimate the extent to which they have to change in order to assimilate what is in reality a new way of running the company (Humphreys et al., 2001). MRP II failure have embraced technical problems; the difficulties involved in selecting and evaluating cost effective MRP II packages and a host of historical, cultural, structural and managerial issues (White, 1980, Kinnie et al., 1992, Wight, 1990, Wilson et al., 1994); expertise needed to implement and use effective MRP II systems; lead times management; design of the production environment, routing and quality information; Infinite capacity availability; batch and lot sizing (Higgins et al., 1998). An accurate demand forecast is an essential foundation for the successful operation of an MRP II system. Poor sales forecasting had been identified by senior management as one of the main reasons for the MRP II implementation failure (Humphreys et al., 2001). 3.1.3 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) The Gartner Group of Stamford, CT, USA, coined the term ERP in the early 1970s to describe the business software system. The name ERP was derived from the terms material requirements planning (MRP) and manufacturing resource planning (MRP II). The maturity stage of ERP occurred in the mid-1990s. ERP is the third generation of planning software. Material requirements planning (MRP) was the first generation, manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) the second and ERP the third. The primary purpose of ERP is to create a seamless integration of interrelated information throughout the business organization. A system of software programs is used to develop the necessary links between the various business functions so that needed information is readily available. There are 8 (eight) major functions and 33 (thirty three) sub-functions, as well as 22 (twenty two) primary modules and several sub-modules (Umble et al., 2001). A typical ERP implementation takes anywhere from one to five years (M abert et al., 2003). ERP system is not just a pure software package to be tailored to an organization but an organizational infrastructure that affects how people work and that it â€Å"imposes its own logic on a companys strategy, organization, and culture† (Shehab et al., 2004, Davenport, 1998, Lee and Lee, 2000). 3.1.3.1 Definition of ERP When customers and suppliers request information that have been fully integrated throughout the value chain or when executives require integrated strategies and tactics in areas such as manufacturing, inventory, procurement and accounting, ERP systems collect the data for analysis and transform the data into useful information that companies can use to support business decision-making. They allow companies to focus on core and truly value-added activities (Nah, 2002). These activities cover accounting and financial management, human resources management, manufacturing and logistics, sales and marketing, and customer relationship management. Table 3.2 shows definitions of ERP, cited in different literatures. Table 3.2: Definition of ERP Definition Reference ERP systems are enterprise-wide on-line interactive systems that support cross-functional processes using a common database. ERP systems are designed to provide, at least in theory, seamless integration of processes across functional areas with improved workflow, standardization of various business practices, and access to real-time up-to-date data. (Davenport, 1998) ERP systems are complex and implementing one can be a challenging, time consuming and expensive project for any company. ERP is not only an IT solution, but also a strategic business solution. As an IT solution, ERP system, if implemented fully across an entire enterprise, connects various components of the enterprise through a logical transmission and sharing of data. (Norris et al., 2000) ERP is a commodity, a product in the form of computer software. (Klaus et al., 2000) ERP is a development objective of mapping all processes and data of an enterprise into a comprehensive integrative structure. ERP is a key element of an infrastructure that delivers a solution to business. ERP a method for the effective planning and controlling of all the resources needed to take, make, ship and account for customer orders in a manufacturing, distribution or service company. (Nah, 2002) ERP system is a packaged business software system that allows a company to automate and integrate the majority of its business processes, and share common data and practices across the entire enterprise. (Seddon et al., 2003) ERP is a â€Å"do it all† system that performs everything from entry of sales orders to customer service. It attempts to integrate the suppliers and customers with the manufacturing environment of the organization. (Shehab et al., 2004) 3.1.3.2 Benefits of ERP ERP systems have certain advantages such as low operating cost and improving customer service (Shehab et al., 2004). In implementing an ERP solution, an organization can quickly upgrade its business processes to industry standards, taking advantage of the many years of business systems reengineering and integration experience of the major ERP vendors (Myerson, 2002). The practical benefits of ERP are divided into five aspects by Seddon et al. (2003): operational, managerial, strategic, IT infrastructure, and organizational (Table 3.3). Table 3.3: Benefits of ERP Operational benefits: By automating business processes and enabling process changes, they can offer benefits in terms of cost reduction, cycle term reduction, productivity improvement, quality improvement, and improved customer service. Managerial benefits: With centralized database and built-in data analysis capabilities, they can help an organization achieve better resource management, improved decision making and planning, and performance improvement. Strategic benefits: With large-scale business involvement and internal/external integration capabilities, they can assist in business growth, alliance, innovation, cost, differentiation, and external linkages. IT infrastructure benefits: With integrated and standard application architecture, they support business flexibility, reduced IT cost and marginal cost of business units IT, and increased capability for quick implementation of new applications. Organizational benefits: They affect the growth of organizational capabilities by supporting organization structure change, facilitating employee learning, empowering workers, and building common visions. 3.1.3.3 Disadvantages of ERP: ERP systems have some disadvantages due to the tight integration of application modules and data. Huge storage needs, networking requirements and training overheads are frequently mentioned ERP problems. However, the scale of business process re-engineering (BPR) and customizations tasks involved in the software implementation process are the major reasons for ERP dissatisfaction. ERP projects are large, costly and difficult and that they require large investment in capital and staff and management time (Adam and ODoherty, 2000). Yen et al. (2002) identified the following disadvantages of ERP: Its high cost prevents small businesses from setting up an ERP system The privacy concern within an ERP system Lack of trained people may affect ERPs efficiency Implementation of an ERP project is painful Customization is costly and time-consuming. Some of these shortcomings have been discussed by OConnor and Dodd (2000). Implementation of an ERP system is an extensive, lengthy and costly process, typically measured in millions of dollars. An ERP implementation can take many years to be completed and cost tens of millions of dollars for a moderate size firm and upwards of $100 million for large international organizations (Mabert et al., 2000). Even with significant investments in time and resources, there is no guarantee of a successful outcome (Mabert et al., 2003). According to Shehab et al. (2004), the ERP systems are complex and implementing one can be difficult, time-consuming and expensive project for a company. It costs tens of millions of dollar for a medium sized company and $300-500 million for large international corporations. There are also some possible hidden costs that may include losing some very intelligent employees after the initial implementation is done, continual imp Manufacturing Resource Planning Models Manufacturing Resource Planning Models Manufacturing Resource Planning Models under Uncertainty and Commonality for Multi-products Multi-period Multistage Production Environment Chapter 3: Literature Review In this chapter, the following areas of research are investigated to lay the foundation for the intended mathematical models: manufacturing resources planning background, benefits and limitations; manufacturing resources planning models under different uncertainties; and commonality in manufacturing resources planning models. 3.1 Evolution of manufacturing environment The field of production planning and control has undergone tremendous change in the last 50 years. Prior to the 1960s, inventory was controlled by a manual system, utilizing various techniques: stock replenishment, reorder points, EOQ (economic order quantity) (McGarrie, 1998), and ABC classifications, to name a few (Ptak, 1991). Gilbert and Schonberger (1983) provide a history of production control, while Lee (1993) comments that by the mid-1970s, enough experience of material requirements planning (MRP) had been gained and the importance of the master production schedule (MPS) was realized. In the 1950s, MRP were the first off-the-shelf business applications to support the creation and maintenance of material master data and bill-of-materials (demand-based 14 planning) across all products and parts in one or more plants. These early packages were able to process mass data but only with limited processing depth (Klaus et al., 2000). From the 1940s to the early 1960s, material control consisted of basic ‘order point formulae used to maintain a level average inventory balance. In 1965, Joseph Orlicky of the J. I. Case Company devised a new approach to material management, called material requirement planning (MRP) to serve as a platform to answer four questions, known as the ‘Universal Manufacturing Equation (Towers et al., 2005): What are we going to make, What does it take to make, What do we have and What do we have to get. The respective answer of the first three questions lie in the blueprint of production plan: the master production schedule (MPS), the bill of material (BOM) and the physical inventory records themselves. While MRP was certainly a vast improvement over simple manual method, the potential to stretch its boundary even further was soon recognized. A companys production is constrained by not only its inventory need but also by equipment and personnel capacity, facet of the plant not considered in the Universal Manufacturing Equation. MRP at its core is a time phased order release system that schedules and releases manufacturing work orders and purchase orders, so that sub-assemblies and components arrive at the assembly station just as they are required. As competitive pressures increased and users became more sophisticated, MRP evolved and expanded to include more business functions such as product costing and marketing. In 1975 the next generation system, Closed-Loop MRP, integrated capacity factors into the MRP structure and used feedback on production status to maintain the validity of planning decisions as requirements changed. One crucial link in the manufacturing decision chain was still missing- the financial point of view. With advent of computer system in the early 1980s the development of effective shop-floor scheduling tools had at that time been dominated by the top down approach of manufacturing resource planning known as MRP II for controlling production operations (Towers et al., 2005). The introduction of MRP II five years later served to bridge the gap. The operational Closed-Loop MRP plan, presented in material units such as pieces and pounds, was translated into financial dollar terms, enabling the entire organization to work off a single set of data. Simulation capability was also developed to answer ‘what if planning questions with action oriented replies. A major purpose of MRP II is to integrate primary functions (i.e. production, marketing and finance) and other functions such as personnel, engineering and purchasing into the planning process to improve the efficiency of the manufacturing enterprise (Chen, 2001, Chung and Snyder, 2000, Mabert et al., 2001). MRP II has certain extensions like rough cut capacity planning and capacity requirements planning for production scheduling on the shop floor as well as feedback from manufacturing shops on the progress of fabrication. Since the 1980s, the number of MRP II installations has continued to increase, as MRP II applications became available on mini and micro computers (Siriginidi, 2000). Like MRP, MRP II focused on the manufacturing process. Then MRP II was extended towards the more technical areas that cover the product development and production processes. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) supplied the entire conceptual framework for the integration of all business administrative and technical functions of a company, such as finance, sales and distribution, and human resources (Klaus et al., 2000). The next stage of MRP II evolution was just-in-time (JIT) methodology that combined with the plummeting price of computing to create the islands of automation in late 1980s. Over the last 60 years, many PPC systems and philosophies have been developed. These include material requirements planning (MRP), manufacturing resource planning (MRP II), enterprise resource planning (ERP), just in time (JIT), optimized production technology (OPT), advanced production scheduling (APS), supply chain management (SCM) and customer relationship management (CRM), either used individually or jointly (Koh, 2004). 3.1.1 Material requirement planning (MRP) Kulonda (2000) descried the evolution of MRP, dividing it in three different worlds. In the first world, MPS items typically are finished end items made to stock; MPS is stated in terms of forecast item demand converted to a series of production lots via time-phased order points or other rules. In the second world, the MPS could conceivably be stated as end items built entirely to order. If response time were not an issue, this approach would work quite well. Competitive force, however, often require shorter response times and inevitably some stocking of at least the longest lead time items occur. A relatively large number of different components are assembled to complete an end product that may have many specific variants. The third world of MRP has all the complexity of the second world with the additional complication that relatively numerous end items are built from relatively few raw materials. This can be visualized in part level count charts shown in 3.1. Within the MRP system a number of rules need to be specified. They include: acceptable lot sizes, safety stocks and reject allowances. There are three principles of MRP. They are: dependent on demand for the final product; netting of inventory with expected deliveries and open orders to give a balance on-hand; and time phasing by using information on lead times and needs. Three basic MRP inputs to the system are: master production schedule (MPS); the structured BOM for the MPS; and information on inventories, open orders and lead times. The aim of MRP systems is to minimize cost of inventories and maintain customer service levels. MRP benefits include the ability to rapidly re-plan and re-schedule in response to changes in a dynamic environment. It is flexible and responsive to the customer needs (Hines, 2004). The successes and disappointments of MRP as well as the key shortcomings of MRP (material requirement planning) are studied by Plenert (1999). He investigates consequences of the deficiencies means if they are not corrected. The difficulties encountered by firms in the implementation process of MRP may be traced back to a number of factors. The complexity of MRP systems, which, of course, is a relative concept varying according to the level of knowledge and experience available inside the firm prior to implementation (Wortmann, 1998, Wilson et al., 1994, Luscombe, 1994). There are usually several parameters to be initiated when implementing standard software. A considerable amount of intensive training is required. In fact, even though end-users are usually trained on a limited amount of functionality, key users need to acquire considerable technical competence. The organizations simply under-estimate the extent to which they have to change in order to accommodate their purchase. The effective management of technological change requires transformational leadership (Brown, 1994). One of the issues largely felt as critical concerns the resistance of managers and personnel to the organizational change that is induced by the adoption of new technologies. To this regard, several authors have underlined the importance of a sound involvement of shop-floor workers (Sommer, 1998, Weill et al., 1991). Valuable relevance has also been placed in the referring literature to technological problems, such as the unsuitability of MRP systems to optimize the internal workflow. In fact, frequent changes in schedules, a problem referred to as production nervousness, is an obstacle to successful implementation of MRP systems (Duchessi et al., 1998). Material Requirements Planning (MRP) has fallen into disfavor in 1980s, as demonstrated by the extensive literature and conference material coming out of organizations like the American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) which discuss its shortcomings (Berger, 1987). MRP has received strong challenges of its effectiveness from Japan. It is believed that the only thing which is still keeping so many manufacturers with MRP is the difficulty in converting to other (Plenert, 1999). Looking at MRPs basic philosophy, we should be able to focus our scheduling only on what materials are needed, and when they are needed (Plenert, 1990b, Ritzman et al., 1984, Chase and Aquilano, 1995, Lee and Schniederjans, 1994, Nahmias, 1997, Schroder et al., 1981). MRP allows greater flexibility in product customization. The most obvious shortcoming in MRP usage is its focus on labor efficiency. Labor is not the resource that we need to be efficient at, especially since it causes inefficiencies in our most critical resource, materials. We need to minimize our routings, shortening lead times as much as possible. We need to do our buffering using safety capacity (labor and machine capacity buffers), not safety stock (materials capacity buffers) (Plenert, 1999). We should minimize the non-value-added steps to make them as efficient as possible. The other big builders of inventory are time and the large batch size. 3.1.2 Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II) The theory of MRPII has been well discussed in the literature and focuses are normally put on concept, methodology, application and future development (Ip and Yam, 1998). MRP II (Manufacturing Resource Planning) is a hierarchically structured information system which is based on the idea of controlling all flows of materials and goods by integrating the plans of sales, finance and operations. The levels in an MRP II concept as outlined are applied to two plans in particular (Zapfel, 1996): Business Planning including Resource Requirements Planning (RRP) and Master Production Scheduling (MPS) including Rough-cut Capacity Planning (RCCP). Business planning level of a company identifies its objectives. The business plan integrates the plans from sales, finance and operations. The planned aggregate sales income, the planned cost of sales and operations, and all other expenses per planning period provide a basis for calculating the planned net income of the firm. The planning horizon is often a year or longer and a planning period a month or longer. To be feasible, the production plan is examined by the so-called resource requirements planning (RRP); that is, the resources required by a given aggregate production plan can be calculated. MRP II offers simulation capabilities and marries the operating system with the financial system so that what-if questions can be answered using the software system. If the business plan leads to resource requirements which are not feasible or which are unsatisfactory, the user can change the plan and a new simulation run is started to calculate the modified resource requirements. These s teps can be repeated until a feasible and satisfactory business plan is achieved. The aggregate production plan, accepted by the user, forms an important basis for master production scheduling. MRP II tends to link manufacturing, engineering, marketing, finance and management (Yusuf and Little, 1998); production operations-inventory production control, purchasing with production planning, Capacity Planning and Master Scheduling (Turbide, 1990); sales, logistics, production, engineering and supporting functions, the broad ingredients of almost all Manufacturing organization (Ip and Yam, 1998). It may also include costumer service- order entry, sales analysis, forecasting- with financial applications. The total is a single information control system that shares data among the various applications for the mutual benefit (Turbide, 1990). MRP II operates in a â€Å"pull† manner at the planning level. It is used for high-level planning of demand and inventory functions and preliminary capacity evaluations. Ip and Yam (1998) afford a master plan which integrates the technology and management of the strategic elements, problem definition, MRP II solutions, technical and procedural design, and implementation management in order to minimize the frustration and conflicts universally found in MRP II implementation process as well as to reduce disconnection amongst different stages of the implementation process. Ideally MRP II addresses operational planning in units; financial planning in money terms, and has simulation capability to answer â€Å"what-if† questions. It is made up of a variety of functions, each linked together: business planning, production planning, master production scheduling, material requirements planning, capacity requirements planning and the execution systems for capacity and priority. Outputs from these systems would be integrated with financial reports, such as the business plan, purchase commitment report, chipping budget, inventory production in money terms, etc. Manufacturing Resource Planning is a direct outgrowth and extension of a Material Resource Planning (MRP) (Higgins et al., 1998). 3.1.2.1 MRP II definitions: ‘If I had to sum up MRP II in one word, the word I would choose is discipline. Allowed three words, they would be discipline/performance measurement Sheldon (1991). He detailed the total implementation process, from inception to completion and divided the process into six steps, namely, education, common goal, fitness for use, accountability, performance measurement and systems/tools. In Table 3.1, the definition of MRP II is summarized. Table 3.1: Definition of MRP II Definition Reference MRP II is a well-defined process or set of calculations that is used to develop plans for the acquisition of the materials needed for production. (Turbide, 1990) MRP II is an information control philosophy that is often translated into software products containing, among other capabilities the MRP calculation function. MRP II is a system designed for managing all the resources of a manufacturing company. It consists of a comprehensive set of planning tools and techniques which integrate all functional areas of an organization (Tremblay, 1991) MRP II is a method for the effective planning of all resources of a manufacturing company. (Dougherty and Wallace, 1992) Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) is a long promising method that simplifies all the complex tasks of manufacturing management. (Chambers, 1996) MRP II is a hierarchically structured information system which is based on the idea of controlling all flows of materials and goods by integrating the plans of sales, finance and operations. (Zapfel, 1996) Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II) is a structured approach to optimize a companys internal Supply Chain. (Higgins et al., 1998) MRP II is a method for the effective planning of all resources of the manufacturing company. MRP II is an effective management system that has excellent planning and scheduling capability which can offer dramatic increases in customer service, significant gains in productivity, much higher inventory turns, and greater reduction in material costs. (Ip and Yam, 1998) MRP II system is a proactive materials strategy. It is a dynamic system and can adapt to change as it reflects upon the latest information in its planned order releases. (Towers et al., 2005) 3.1.2.2 MRP II benefits: The potential benefits those may receive from the MRP II are summarized below: Empirical research suggests that companies able to implement MRP II successfully report enhanced competitive positions, improved customer service levels, a better financial position, increased plant efficiency, heightened morale in production, more effective co-ordination with marketing and finance, more efficient production scheduling and reduced inventory levels, fewer component shortages, reduced manufacturing costs and lead times and improvements in inventory turnover (Humphreys et al., 2001, Brown and Roberts, 1992, Roberts and Barrar, 1992). When customers and suppliers (internal or external) request information that have been fully integrated throughout the Supply Chain or when executives require integrated strategies and tactics in areas such as manufacturing, inventory, procurement and accounting, MRP II systems collate the data for analysis and transform the data into useful information that companies can use to support business decision-making (Broatch, 2001). MRP II systems, if implemented successfully, enhance and redesign business processes to eliminate non-value-added activities and allow companies to focus on core and truly value-added activities (Broatch, 2001). The focus of MRP II computer systems is on the efficiency and effectiveness of the internal processes. It offers a way to streamline and align business processes, increase operational and manufacturing efficiencies and bring order out of chaos (Nah, 2002). MRP II systems minimize the time and effort required to process business data and maximizes the application of that information. By facilitating data exchange throughout the organization, a MRP II system enables to coordinate such crucial activities as production planning, material planning, capacity planning and shop floor control (Plenert, 1999). MRP II is concerned mainly with scheduling of activities and the management of inventories. It is particularly useful where there is a need to produce components, items or sub-assemblies, which themselves are later used in the production of a final product. Organizations can improve their overall customer service through consistently meeting delivery promises, shortening delivery times and having products on hand when customer orders are received. MRP II can provide the necessary management information to ensure delivery promises can be kept. Where there is volatility in demand with unpredictable customer requirements and complex product structures, the information management capability of MRP II is particularly relevant (Towers et al., 2005). A well implemented MRP II system can: provide an organization with reliable lead times; meet its service delivery performance requirements; contribute to stable and consistent lead times and well informed decision-making; maintain lower level of safety stock; reduce the average inventory level and reduce inventory investments to a minimum (Towers et al., 2005). The uncertainty of demand can be minimized due to the fact that MRP II can provide an organization with a clear picture of the demand for a particular item and when organizations know their future needs they can negotiate their purchase agreements with suppliers and receive quantity discounts improving their financial position (Towers et al., 2005). Successful MRP II users have typically reported as much as 15 percent gain in manufacturing productivity, 50 percent reduction in overtime, 33 percent reduction in inventory investment and 80 percent reduction in inventory shortages (Towers et al., 2005). MRP II provides better control over the quantity and timing of deliveries of raw materials, parts, sub-assemblies and assemblies to production operations. 3.1.2.3 Pitfalls of MRP II: The main pitfalls of MRP II from various authenticated literature are listed below: Impressive though the benefits are, there is evidence suggesting that, as with so many similar technologies, few companies are able to maximize them. White et al. (1982) consider that 50 per cent of organizations do not achieve their objectives. Archer (1991) has said that 70 per cent of systems may be regarded as failures. Ho et al. (1992) has stated that ‘few firms have been able to realize the full potential offered by MRP II. While relative percentages of successful and unsuccessful implementations differ from study to study, each demonstrates a surprisingly high failure rate. Implementation of MRP II system requires major managerial innovations and organizational changes in addition to the installation of computer hardware and software (Lau et al., 2002). The heart of an MRP II system is MRP. MRP II does consider resource capacity level when generating the POR schedule. If an overload is identified, it will flag and recommend the user to reschedule. The question is how frequent should the user reschedule? Both Ho et al. (1995) and Sridharan and LaForge (1989) showed that rescheduling induces system nervousness, which leads to further underperformance. MRP II has been criticized by a number of authors on the grounds that few benefits accrue for high implementation costs (Burns et al., 1991, Sum and Yang, 1993). Unsuccessful MRP II implementation not only deprives companies of potentially huge benefits but also results in financial losses and disruptions in operations (Towers et al., 2005). MRP II concept is only partially suited to production planning in the case of uncertain demand. There is little help with the necessary aggregation and disaggregation process, especially when demand uncertainty exists. It is difficult for the user of MRP II to find a robust aggregate plan for master production schedule (Zapfel, 1996). Critics of MRP II points to the rigidity of the process: the logic that demands batches and multiple; the fixed lead time which takes no account of current capacity; the standard queue concept in front of a work center etc. Increasing competitive pressure, manifested by reduced lead times, smaller batch sizes, lower stocks and ever more demanding customers have pushed MRP II to its limits (Porter et al., 1996). 3.1.2.4 Reasons for failure: One of the principal reasons for the failure of MRP II and other large technologically sophisticated systems is that organizations simply underestimate the extent to which they have to change in order to assimilate what is in reality a new way of running the company (Humphreys et al., 2001). MRP II failure have embraced technical problems; the difficulties involved in selecting and evaluating cost effective MRP II packages and a host of historical, cultural, structural and managerial issues (White, 1980, Kinnie et al., 1992, Wight, 1990, Wilson et al., 1994); expertise needed to implement and use effective MRP II systems; lead times management; design of the production environment, routing and quality information; Infinite capacity availability; batch and lot sizing (Higgins et al., 1998). An accurate demand forecast is an essential foundation for the successful operation of an MRP II system. Poor sales forecasting had been identified by senior management as one of the main reasons for the MRP II implementation failure (Humphreys et al., 2001). 3.1.3 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) The Gartner Group of Stamford, CT, USA, coined the term ERP in the early 1970s to describe the business software system. The name ERP was derived from the terms material requirements planning (MRP) and manufacturing resource planning (MRP II). The maturity stage of ERP occurred in the mid-1990s. ERP is the third generation of planning software. Material requirements planning (MRP) was the first generation, manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) the second and ERP the third. The primary purpose of ERP is to create a seamless integration of interrelated information throughout the business organization. A system of software programs is used to develop the necessary links between the various business functions so that needed information is readily available. There are 8 (eight) major functions and 33 (thirty three) sub-functions, as well as 22 (twenty two) primary modules and several sub-modules (Umble et al., 2001). A typical ERP implementation takes anywhere from one to five years (M abert et al., 2003). ERP system is not just a pure software package to be tailored to an organization but an organizational infrastructure that affects how people work and that it â€Å"imposes its own logic on a companys strategy, organization, and culture† (Shehab et al., 2004, Davenport, 1998, Lee and Lee, 2000). 3.1.3.1 Definition of ERP When customers and suppliers request information that have been fully integrated throughout the value chain or when executives require integrated strategies and tactics in areas such as manufacturing, inventory, procurement and accounting, ERP systems collect the data for analysis and transform the data into useful information that companies can use to support business decision-making. They allow companies to focus on core and truly value-added activities (Nah, 2002). These activities cover accounting and financial management, human resources management, manufacturing and logistics, sales and marketing, and customer relationship management. Table 3.2 shows definitions of ERP, cited in different literatures. Table 3.2: Definition of ERP Definition Reference ERP systems are enterprise-wide on-line interactive systems that support cross-functional processes using a common database. ERP systems are designed to provide, at least in theory, seamless integration of processes across functional areas with improved workflow, standardization of various business practices, and access to real-time up-to-date data. (Davenport, 1998) ERP systems are complex and implementing one can be a challenging, time consuming and expensive project for any company. ERP is not only an IT solution, but also a strategic business solution. As an IT solution, ERP system, if implemented fully across an entire enterprise, connects various components of the enterprise through a logical transmission and sharing of data. (Norris et al., 2000) ERP is a commodity, a product in the form of computer software. (Klaus et al., 2000) ERP is a development objective of mapping all processes and data of an enterprise into a comprehensive integrative structure. ERP is a key element of an infrastructure that delivers a solution to business. ERP a method for the effective planning and controlling of all the resources needed to take, make, ship and account for customer orders in a manufacturing, distribution or service company. (Nah, 2002) ERP system is a packaged business software system that allows a company to automate and integrate the majority of its business processes, and share common data and practices across the entire enterprise. (Seddon et al., 2003) ERP is a â€Å"do it all† system that performs everything from entry of sales orders to customer service. It attempts to integrate the suppliers and customers with the manufacturing environment of the organization. (Shehab et al., 2004) 3.1.3.2 Benefits of ERP ERP systems have certain advantages such as low operating cost and improving customer service (Shehab et al., 2004). In implementing an ERP solution, an organization can quickly upgrade its business processes to industry standards, taking advantage of the many years of business systems reengineering and integration experience of the major ERP vendors (Myerson, 2002). The practical benefits of ERP are divided into five aspects by Seddon et al. (2003): operational, managerial, strategic, IT infrastructure, and organizational (Table 3.3). Table 3.3: Benefits of ERP Operational benefits: By automating business processes and enabling process changes, they can offer benefits in terms of cost reduction, cycle term reduction, productivity improvement, quality improvement, and improved customer service. Managerial benefits: With centralized database and built-in data analysis capabilities, they can help an organization achieve better resource management, improved decision making and planning, and performance improvement. Strategic benefits: With large-scale business involvement and internal/external integration capabilities, they can assist in business growth, alliance, innovation, cost, differentiation, and external linkages. IT infrastructure benefits: With integrated and standard application architecture, they support business flexibility, reduced IT cost and marginal cost of business units IT, and increased capability for quick implementation of new applications. Organizational benefits: They affect the growth of organizational capabilities by supporting organization structure change, facilitating employee learning, empowering workers, and building common visions. 3.1.3.3 Disadvantages of ERP: ERP systems have some disadvantages due to the tight integration of application modules and data. Huge storage needs, networking requirements and training overheads are frequently mentioned ERP problems. However, the scale of business process re-engineering (BPR) and customizations tasks involved in the software implementation process are the major reasons for ERP dissatisfaction. ERP projects are large, costly and difficult and that they require large investment in capital and staff and management time (Adam and ODoherty, 2000). Yen et al. (2002) identified the following disadvantages of ERP: Its high cost prevents small businesses from setting up an ERP system The privacy concern within an ERP system Lack of trained people may affect ERPs efficiency Implementation of an ERP project is painful Customization is costly and time-consuming. Some of these shortcomings have been discussed by OConnor and Dodd (2000). Implementation of an ERP system is an extensive, lengthy and costly process, typically measured in millions of dollars. An ERP implementation can take many years to be completed and cost tens of millions of dollars for a moderate size firm and upwards of $100 million for large international organizations (Mabert et al., 2000). Even with significant investments in time and resources, there is no guarantee of a successful outcome (Mabert et al., 2003). According to Shehab et al. (2004), the ERP systems are complex and implementing one can be difficult, time-consuming and expensive project for a company. It costs tens of millions of dollar for a medium sized company and $300-500 million for large international corporations. There are also some possible hidden costs that may include losing some very intelligent employees after the initial implementation is done, continual imp